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## Contents
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  * [ (Top) ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#>)
  * [ 1 Definition ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Definition>)
  * [ 2 Overview ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Overview>)
  * [ 3 Asia and Africa ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Asia_and_Africa>) Toggle Asia and Africa subsection
    * [ 3.1 East Asia ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#East_Asia>)
      * [ 3.1.1 Chinese dynasties ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Chinese_dynasties>)
      * [ 3.1.2 Japanese shogunates ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Japanese_shogunates>)
      * [ 3.1.3 Korean dynasty ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Korean_dynasty>)
    * [ 3.2 South Asia ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#South_Asia>)
      * [ 3.2.1 Indian empires ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Indian_empires>)
      * [ 3.2.2 British and Dutch colonization ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#British_and_Dutch_colonization>)
    * [ 3.3 Southeast Asia ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Southeast_Asia>)
    * [ 3.4 West Asia and North Africa ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#West_Asia_and_North_Africa>)
      * [ 3.4.1 Ottoman Empire ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Ottoman_Empire>)
      * [ 3.4.2 North Africa ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#North_Africa>)
      * [ 3.4.3 Safavid Iran ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Safavid_Iran>)
      * [ 3.4.4 Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Uzbeks_and_Afghan_Pashtuns>)
    * [ 3.5 Sub-Saharan Africa ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Sub-Saharan_Africa>)
  * [ 4 Europe ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Europe>) Toggle Europe subsection
    * [ 4.1 Gunpowder and firearms ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Gunpowder_and_firearms>)
    * [ 4.2 European kingdoms and movements ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#European_kingdoms_and_movements>)
      * [ 4.2.1 Notable individuals ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Notable_individuals>)
    * [ 4.3 Christians and Christendom ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Christians_and_Christendom>)
      * [ 4.3.1 End of the Crusades and Unity ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#End_of_the_Crusades_and_Unity>)
      * [ 4.3.2 Inquisitions and Reformations ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Inquisitions_and_Reformations>)
      * [ 4.3.3 Tsardom of Russia ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Tsardom_of_Russia>)
      * [ 4.3.4 Mercantile capitalism ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Mercantile_capitalism>)
        * [ 4.3.4.1 Trade and the new economy ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Trade_and_the_new_economy>)
        * [ 4.3.4.2 Piracy's Golden Age ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Piracy's_Golden_Age>)
      * [ 4.3.5 European states and politics ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#European_states_and_politics>)
        * [ 4.3.5.1 French power ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#French_power>)
        * [ 4.3.5.2 Early English revolutions ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Early_English_revolutions>)
        * [ 4.3.5.3 International balance of power ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#International_balance_of_power>)
  * [ 5 Americas ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Americas>) Toggle Americas subsection
    * [ 5.1 Exploration and conquest of the Americas ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Exploration_and_conquest_of_the_Americas>)
    * [ 5.2 Colonial Latin America ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Colonial_Latin_America>)
    * [ 5.3 Colonial North America ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Colonial_North_America>)
  * [ 6 Atlantic World ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Atlantic_World>)
  * [ 7 Religion, science, philosophy, and education ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Religion,_science,_philosophy,_and_education>) Toggle Religion, science, philosophy, and education subsection
    * [ 7.1 Protestant Reformation ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Protestant_Reformation>)
    * [ 7.2 Counter-Reformation and Jesuits ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Counter-Reformation_and_Jesuits>)
    * [ 7.3 Scientific Revolution ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Scientific_Revolution>)
    * [ 7.4 Technology ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Technology>)
    * [ 7.5 Enlightenment and reason ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Enlightenment_and_reason>)
    * [ 7.6 Humanism ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Humanism>)
  * [ 8 Death in the early modern period ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Death_in_the_early_modern_period>) Toggle Death in the early modern period subsection
    * [ 8.1 Mortality rates ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Mortality_rates>)
      * [ 8.1.1 European infant mortality rates ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#European_infant_mortality_rates>)
      * [ 8.1.2 Causes of infant mortality ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Causes_of_infant_mortality>)
    * [ 8.2 Capital punishment ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Capital_punishment>)
  * [ 9 See also ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#See_also>)
  * [ 10 References ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#References>) Toggle References subsection
    * [ 10.1 Works cited ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Works_cited>)
  * [ 11 External links ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#External_links>)


Toggle the table of contents
# Early modern period
76 languages
  * [العربية](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9> "الحقبة الحديثة المبكرة – Arabic")
  * [Aragonés](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Moderna> "Edat Moderna – Aragonese")
  * [Asturianu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Moderna> "Edá Moderna – Asturian")
  * [Avañe'ẽ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Ko%27%C3%A3gagua> "Ára Ko'ãgagua – Guarani")
  * [বাংলা](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97> "প্রারম্ভিক আধুনিক যুগ – Bangla")
  * [Беларуская](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81> "Ранні Новы час – Belarusian")
  * [Boarisch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friae_Neizeid> "Friae Neizeid – Bavarian")
  * [Brezhoneg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amzerio%C3%B9_modern> "Amzerioù modern – Breton")
  * [Català](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_moderna> "Edat moderna – Catalan")
  * [Čeština](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ran%C3%BD_novov%C4%9Bk> "Raný novověk – Czech")
  * [Cymraeg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfnod_Modern_Cynnar> "Cyfnod Modern Cynnar – Welsh")
  * [Dansk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_moderne_tid> "Tidlig moderne tid – Danish")
  * [Deutsch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%BChe_Neuzeit> "Frühe Neuzeit – German")
  * [Eesti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varauusaeg> "Varauusaeg – Estonian")
  * [Ελληνικά](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82> "Πρώιμη νεότερη περίοδος – Greek")
  * [Español](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Moderna> "Edad Moderna – Spanish")
  * [Esperanto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frua_moderna_epoko> "Frua moderna epoko – Esperanto")
  * [Euskara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aro_Modernoa> "Aro Modernoa – Basque")
  * [فارسی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86> "دوران نوین آغازین – Persian")
  * [Français](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poque_moderne> "Époque moderne – French")
  * [Galego](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Moderna> "Idade Moderna – Galician")
  * [한국어](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EC%84%B8> "근세 – Korean")
  * [हिन्दी](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2> "प्रारंभिक आधुनिक काल – Hindi")
  * [Ido](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern-epoko> "Modern-epoko – Ido")
  * [Bahasa Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periode_modern_awal> "Periode modern awal – Indonesian")
  * [Interlingua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etate_Moderne> "Etate Moderne – Interlingua")
  * [Italiano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_moderna> "Età moderna – Italian")
  * [עברית](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%AA> "העת החדשה המוקדמת – Hebrew")
  * [Kabɩyɛ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C9%A9waat%CA%8A_k%C9%A9fat%CA%8A_\(P%C3%A9riode_moderne\)> "Alɩwaatʊ kɩfatʊ \(Période moderne\) – Kabiye")
  * [Kernowek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oos_Arnowydh_A-Varr> "Oos Arnowydh A-Varr – Cornish")
  * [Kurdî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destp%C3%AAka_Dema_N%C3%BBjen> "Destpêka Dema Nûjen – Kurdish")
  * [Ladin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_moderna> "Storia moderna – Ladin")
  * [ລາວ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%81%E2%80%8B%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E2%80%8B%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A1%E2%80%8B%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%BB%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%99%E2%80%8B> "ຍຸກ​ສະ​ໄຫມ​ຕົ້ນ​ – Lao")
  * [Latviešu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agr%C4%ABnie_jaunie_laiki> "Agrīnie jaunie laiki – Latvian")
  * [Lëtzebuergesch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neiz%C3%A4it> "Neizäit – Luxembourgish")
  * [Lietuvių](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naujieji_am%C5%BEiai> "Naujieji amžiai – Lithuanian")
  * [Ligure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A6_Mod%C3%A8rna> "Etæ Modèrna – Ligurian")
  * [Limburgs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vreugmodernen_Tied> "Vreugmodernen Tied – Limburgish")
  * [Lingua Franca Nova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eda_moderna> "Eda moderna – Lingua Franca Nova")
  * [Lombard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_Mod%C3%A8rna> "Età Modèrna – Lombard")
  * [Magyar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korai_%C3%BAjkor> "Korai újkor – Hungarian")
  * [Македонски](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA> "Ран нов век – Macedonian")
  * [Malagasy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andro_Vaovao> "Andro Vaovao – Malagasy")
  * [Nederlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vroegmoderne_tijd> "Vroegmoderne tijd – Dutch")
  * [नेपाल भाषा](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2> "प्रारम्भिक आधुनिक काल – Newari")
  * [日本語](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%B8%96> "近世 – Japanese")
  * [Norsk bokmål](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_moderne_tid> "Tidlig moderne tid – Norwegian Bokmål")
  * [Norsk nynorsk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidleg_nytid> "Tidleg nytid – Norwegian Nynorsk")
  * [Occitan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Mod%C3%A8rna> "Edat Modèrna – Occitan")
  * [Papiamentu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Moderno> "Edad Moderno – Papiamento")
  * [پښتو](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%DB%8D_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87> "لومړۍ معاصره دوره – Pashto")
  * [Picard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histo%C3%A8re_mod%C3%A9rne> "Histoère modérne – Picard")
  * [Polski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowo%C5%BCytno%C5%9B%C4%87> "Nowożytność – Polish")
  * [Português](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Moderna> "Idade Moderna – Portuguese")
  * [Română](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_modern%C4%83_timpurie> "Epoca modernă timpurie – Romanian")
  * [Rumantsch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_modern_tempriv> "Temp modern tempriv – Romansh")
  * [Русский](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F> "Раннее Новое время – Russian")
  * [Sardu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_moderna> "Edade moderna – Sardinian")
  * [Seeltersk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eermod%C3%A4rne_Tied> "Eermodärne Tied – Saterland Frisian")
  * [Shqip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periudha_e_hershme_moderne> "Periudha e hershme moderne – Albanian")
  * [Simple English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period> "Early modern period – Simple English")
  * [Српски / srpski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_novi_vek> "Rani novi vek – Serbian")
  * [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_novi_vijek> "Rani novi vijek – Serbo-Croatian")
  * [Suomi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varhaismoderni> "Varhaismoderni – Finnish")
  * [Svenska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidigmoderna_tiden> "Tidigmoderna tiden – Swedish")
  * [Tagalog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makabagong_kasaysayan> "Makabagong kasaysayan – Tagalog")
  * [Татарча / tatarça](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8B%D1%82> "Яңа вакыт – Tatar")
  * [ไทย](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99> "สมัยใหม่ตอนต้น – Thai")
  * [Türkçe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeni_%C3%87a%C4%9F> "Yeni Çağ – Turkish")
  * [Українська](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4> "Ранній новий період – Ukrainian")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Historical period from c. 1500 to 1700 or 1800
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg/330px-1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg>)1700 map of the world by Paolo PetriniPart of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:World_history> "Category:World history") on  
---  
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↑ [Prehistory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Prehistory> "Prehistory") ([Stone Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stone_Age> "Stone Age")) (_**[Pleistocene epoch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pleistocene> "Pleistocene")**_)  
[Holocene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holocene> "Holocene")
  * [Timelines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timelines_of_Big_History> "Timelines of Big History")**[Neolithic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Neolithic_Revolution> "Neolithic Revolution") – [Contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Contemporary_history> "Contemporary history")**([10,000 BCE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/10,000_BCE> "10,000 BCE") – [present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portal:Current_events> "Portal:Current events"))


  * [Age of the human race](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity> "Discovery of human antiquity")
  * [Recorded history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Recorded_history> "Recorded history") ([Common Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Common_Era> "Common Era"))
  * [Earliest records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_writing> "History of writing")
  * [Protohistory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protohistory> "Protohistory")
  * [Proto-writing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-writing> "Proto-writing")

  
[Ancient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_history> "Ancient history")
  * [Copper Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chalcolithic> "Chalcolithic")
  * [Bronze Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bronze_Age> "Bronze Age")
  * [Iron Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Iron_Age> "Iron Age")


  * [Axial Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Axial_Age> "Axial Age")
  * [Classical antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_antiquity> "Classical antiquity")
  * [Late antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_antiquity> "Late antiquity")


  * [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity> "History of Africa")
  * [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mesoamerica> "Mesoamerica")
  * [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Andean_civilizations> "Andean civilizations")


  * [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory> "History of Oceania")
  * [East Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_East_Asia> "History of East Asia")
  * [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history> "Outline of South Asian history")


  * [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era> "History of Southeast Asia")
  * [West Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Near_East> "Ancient Near East")


  * [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_antiquity> "Classical antiquity")

  
[Postclassical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Post-classical_history> "Post-classical history")
  * [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages> "Timeline of the Middle Ages")


  * [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800> "History of Africa")
  * [Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pre-Columbian_era> "Pre-Columbian era")


  * [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Oceania> "History of Oceania")
  * [East Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_East_Asia> "History of East Asia")


  * [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India> "Middle kingdoms of India")


  * [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history> "History of Southeast Asia")
  * [West Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East> "History of the Middle East")


  * [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Ages> "Middle Ages")
    * [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance")

  
[Modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_era> "Modern era")| 
  * Early modern
  * [Late modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_modern_period> "Late modern period")
  * [Contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Contemporary_history> "Contemporary history")


  * [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern> "History of Africa")
  * [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern> "History of North America")
  * [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern> "History of South America")


  * [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age> "History of Oceania")
  * [East Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern> "History of East Asia")
  * [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern> "Outline of South Asian history")


  * [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern> "History of Southeast Asia")
  * [West Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_Middle_East> "Modern Middle East")


  * [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_\(1789–1914\)> "History of Europe")

  
---  
See also  
  * [Age of Discovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Discovery> "Age of Discovery")
  * [Modernity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modernity> "Modernity")
    * [Postmodernity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Postmodernity> "Postmodernity")
  * [Futurology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Futures_studies> "Futures studies")
  * [Political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Political_history_of_the_world> "Political history of the world")

  
↓ [Future](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Future> "Future")  
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Human_history> "Template:Human history")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Human_history> "Template talk:Human history")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history> "Special:EditPage/Template:Human history")

  
The **early modern period** is a [historical period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Periodization> "Periodization") that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the [modern period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_period> "Modern period"), with divisions based primarily on the [history of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Europe> "History of Europe") and the broader concept of [modernity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modernity> "Modernity"). There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have started at the beginning of the 16th century, and is variably considered to have ended at the beginning of the 18th or 19th century[_[ambiguous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify> "Wikipedia:Please clarify")_] (around 1500 to 1700-1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Ages> "Middle Ages") and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of [global history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/World_history_\(field\)> "World history \(field\)"), the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period. 
Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the [fall of Constantinople in 1453](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople> "Fall of Constantinople"), the start of the [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance"), the end of the [Crusades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crusades> "Crusades"), the [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation") in [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Germany> "History of Germany") giving rise to [Protestantism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestantism> "Protestantism"), and the beginning of the [Age of Discovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Discovery> "Age of Discovery") and with it the onset of the [first wave of European colonization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization> "First wave of European colonization"). Its end is often marked by the [French Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolution> "French Revolution"), and sometimes also the [American Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/American_Revolution> "American Revolution") or [Napoleon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleon> "Napoleon")'s [rise to power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire> "Coup of 18 Brumaire"),[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-1>)[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-2>) with the advent of the second wave modern colonization of [New Imperialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Imperialism> "New Imperialism"). 
Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its [spreading globalizing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-globalization> "Proto-globalization") character.[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-3>) New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of [mercantilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mercantilism> "Mercantilism") as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of [experimental science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Science> "Science"), increasingly rapid [technological progress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_technology> "History of technology"), [secularized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Secular> "Secular") civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of [nation states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nation_state> "Nation state"). 
## Definition
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=1> "Edit section: Definition")]
The early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of [European history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Europe> "History of Europe"): [antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_civilization> "Classical civilization"), the [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Ages> "Middle Ages") and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian [Lynn Thorndike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lynn_Thorndike> "Lynn Thorndike") in his 1926 work _A Short History of Civilization_ as a broader alternative to the [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance"). It was first picked up within the field of [economic history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Economic_history> "Economic history") during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s.[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-4>)
## Overview
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=2> "Edit section: Overview")]
At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. [Feudalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Feudalism> "Feudalism") declined in Europe, and [Christendom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christendom> "Christendom") saw the end of the [Crusades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crusades> "Crusades") and of religious unity in Western Europe under the [Roman Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church> "Roman Catholic Church"). The old order was destabilized by the [Protestant Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestant_Reformation> "Protestant Reformation"), which caused a backlash that expanded the [Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inquisition> "Inquisition") and sparked the disastrous [European wars of religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_wars_of_religion> "European wars of religion"), which included the especially bloody [Thirty Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War> "Thirty Years' War") and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the [Peace of Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia> "Peace of Westphalia"). Along with the [European colonization of the Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas> "European colonization of the Americas"), this period also contained the [Commercial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Commercial_Revolution> "Commercial Revolution") and the [Golden Age of Piracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy> "Golden Age of Piracy"). The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian [city-states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/City-states> "City-states") and [maritime republics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maritime_republics> "Maritime republics"), particularly [Genoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Genoa> "Genoa"), [Venice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Venice> "Venice"), and [Milan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Milan> "Milan"). Russia [reached the Pacific coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia> "Russian conquest of Siberia") in 1647 and consolidated its control over the [Russian Far East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Far_East> "Russian Far East") in the 19th century. The [Great Divergence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Great_Divergence> "Great Divergence") took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth.[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-5>)
As the [Age of Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Revolution> "Age of Revolution") dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries. This was partly as a result of the upheavals of the [Napoleonic Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleonic_Wars> "Napoleonic Wars") and their impact on the world of ideas and thought of the time: concepts from nationalism to organizing armies were attracting attention and debate.[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-6>)[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-7>)[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-8>) The early modern period ended in a time of economic and political change, as a result of [mechanization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mechanization> "Mechanization") in society, the [American Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/American_Revolution> "American Revolution"), and the first [French Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolution> "French Revolution"); other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the [Final Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna> "s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna") of the [Congress of Vienna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Congress_of_Vienna> "Congress of Vienna")[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-9>) and the peace established by the [Second Treaty of Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_\(1815\)> "Treaty of Paris \(1815\)"), which ended the Napoleonic Wars.[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-10>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg/250px-NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg>)A Japanese depiction of a Portuguese trading [carrack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carrack> "Carrack"). Advances in shipbuilding technology during the [Late Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_Middle_Ages> "Late Middle Ages") would pave the way for the global European presence characteristic of the early modern period.
In the Americas, [pre-Columbian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pre-Columbian> "Pre-Columbian") peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the [Aztec Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aztec_Empire> "Aztec Empire"), the [Inca civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_Incas> "History of the Incas"), the [Maya civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maya_civilization> "Maya civilization") and its cities, and the [Muisca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muisca> "Muisca"). The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the [spread of Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Christianity#Reformation_and_response_\(1517–1700\)> "History of Christianity") around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the [Columbian Exchange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Columbian_Exchange> "Columbian Exchange") that linked the [Old World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_World> "Old World") and the [New World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_World> "New World"), greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the [Atlantic slave trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade> "Atlantic slave trade") and colonization of [Indigenous peoples of the Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas> "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") began during this period.[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-11>) The [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire") conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa.[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-12>)
In the [Islamic world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islamic_world> "Islamic world"), after the fall of the [Timurid Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_Renaissance> "Timurid Renaissance"), powers such as the Ottoman, [Suri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Suri_Empire> "Suri Empire"), [Safavid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid> "Safavid"), and [Mughal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire") empires grew in strength (three of which are known as [gunpowder empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gunpowder_empires> "Gunpowder empires") for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the [Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_subcontinent> "Indian subcontinent"), [Mughal architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture"), [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Persian_culture> "Indo-Persian culture"), and [art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_painting> "Mughal painting") reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of [Western Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Europe> "Western Europe") and worth 25% of global GDP.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-books.google.com-13>) By the mid-18th century, India was a major [proto-industrializing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-industrialization> "Proto-industrialization") region.[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-voss-14>)
Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere. In Japan, the [Edo period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo_period> "Edo period") from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the [Joseon dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Joseon_dynasty> "Joseon dynasty") to the enthronement of [King Gojong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gojong_of_the_Korean_Empire> "Gojong of the Korean Empire"). By the 16th century, Asian economies under the [Ming dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ming_dynasty> "Ming dynasty") and [Mughal Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Bengal> "Mughal Bengal") were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the [Nanban trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nanban_trade> "Nanban trade") after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the [Azuchi–Momoyama period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama_period> "Azuchi–Momoyama period"). 
Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the [Toungoo Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire> "First Toungoo Empire") along with [Ayutthaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom> "Ayutthaya Kingdom") experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia,[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-vbl-151-152-15>)[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-16>) with the [Nguyen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_lords> "Nguyễn lords") and [Trinh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh_lords> "Trịnh lords") lords[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-17>) de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas the [Mataram Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mataram_Sultanate> "Mataram Sultanate") was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region. 
## Asia and Africa
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=3> "Edit section: Asia and Africa")]
### East Asia
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=4> "Edit section: East Asia")]
In early modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of [isolationism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Isolationism> "Isolationism") from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the early modern period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as [Guangzhou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guangzhou> "Guangzhou") and [Dejima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dejima> "Dejima"). 
#### Chinese dynasties
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=5> "Edit section: Chinese dynasties")]
Around the beginning of the [ethnically Han](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Han_Chinese> "Han Chinese") [Ming dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ming_dynasty> "Ming dynasty") (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them.[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-18>) Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei.[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-19>) Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:0-20>) China during the Ming dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year.[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-21>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG/250px-Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG>)[Cishou Temple Pagoda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pagoda_of_Cishou_Temple> "Pagoda of Cishou Temple"), built in 1576: the Chinese believed that building pagodas on certain sites according to [geomantic principles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Feng_shui> "Feng shui") brought about auspicious events; merchant-funding for such projects was needed by the late Ming period.
In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [Nanjing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nanjing> "Nanjing") and [Beijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Beijing> "Beijing"), also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed.[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-22>) The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century.[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-23>)
China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels.[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-24>) Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of [Spanish New World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Spanish colonization of the Americas") silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_Macau> "Portuguese Macau").[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-25>) Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect [Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Joseon> "Joseon") from [Japanese invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_\(1592%E2%80%9398\)> "Japanese invasions of Korea \(1592–98\)").[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-26>) The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: [Philip IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain> "Philip IV of Spain") restricted shipments of exports from [Acapulco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Acapulco> "Acapulco"), the Japanese cut off all trade with [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Macau> "Macau"), and the Dutch severed connections between [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Goa> "Goa") and Macau.[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-27>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Victory_banquet_1788.jpg/250px-Victory_banquet_1788.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Victory_banquet_1788.jpg>)Painting depicting the Qing Chinese celebrating a victory over the [Kingdom of Tungning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning> "Kingdom of Tungning") in [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taiwan> "Taiwan"). This work was a collaboration between Chinese and European painters.
The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient [Little Ice Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Little_Ice_Age> "Little Ice Age"), natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as [Li Zicheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Li_Zicheng> "Li Zicheng"), to challenge Ming authority. 
The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the [ethnically Manchu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manchu_people> "Manchu people") [Qing dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qing_dynasty> "Qing dynasty"), which would be the last [dynasty of China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history> "Dynasties in Chinese history"). The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, [abortive restoration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manchu_Restoration> "Manchu Restoration") in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of [Chinese culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_culture> "Chinese culture") in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance.[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-28>) The Manchus were formerly known as the [Jurchens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jurchen_people> "Jurchen people"). When Beijing was captured by [Li Zicheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Li_Zicheng> "Li Zicheng")'s peasant rebels in 1644, the [Chongzhen Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor> "Chongzhen Emperor"), the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general [Wu Sangui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wu_Sangui> "Wu Sangui") and seized control of [Beijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Beijing> "Beijing"), which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of [China proper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/China_proper> "China proper"). Schoppa, the editor of _The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History_ argues, 
> "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-29>)
#### Japanese shogunates
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=6> "Edit section: Japanese shogunates")]
The [Sengoku period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sengoku_period> "Sengoku period") that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states". 
Following contact with the [Portuguese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_Empire> "Portuguese Empire") on [Tanegashima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tanegashima> "Tanegashima") Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the [arquebus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Arquebus> "Arquebus"), European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion ([Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christianity> "Christianity")), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a [Western vocabulary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Japanese_language#Vocabulary> "Japanese language")) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced [tempura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tempura> "Tempura") and valuable refined sugar.[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-30>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/250px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg>)_[The Great Wave off Kanagawa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa> "The Great Wave off Kanagawa")_ , c. 1830 by [Hokusai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hokusai> "Hokusai"), an example of art flourishing in the Edo period
Central government was largely reestablished by [Oda Nobunaga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oda_Nobunaga> "Oda Nobunaga") and [Toyotomi Hideyoshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi> "Toyotomi Hideyoshi") during the [Azuchi–Momoyama period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama_period> "Azuchi–Momoyama period"). Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with [Oda Nobunaga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oda_Nobunaga> "Oda Nobunaga")'s entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install [Ashikaga Yoshiaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ashikaga_Yoshiaki> "Ashikaga Yoshiaki") as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the [Ashikaga shogunate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate> "Ashikaga shogunate"), and it lasts until the coming to power of [Tokugawa Ieyasu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu> "Tokugawa Ieyasu") after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the [Battle of Sekigahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara> "Battle of Sekigahara") in 1600.[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-31>) Tokugawa received the title of _[shōgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun> "Shōgun")_ in 1603, establishing the [Tokugawa shogunate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate> "Tokugawa shogunate"). 
The [Edo period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo_period> "Edo period") from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a [feudalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Feudal> "Feudal") regime of Japan established by [Tokugawa Ieyasu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu> "Tokugawa Ieyasu") and ruled by the _[shōguns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun> "Shōgun")_ of the [Tokugawa clan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_clan> "Tokugawa clan"). The period gets its name from the capital city, [Edo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo> "Edo"), now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from [Edo Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo_Castle> "Edo Castle") from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the [Meiji Restoration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Meiji_Restoration> "Meiji Restoration") in the late [Edo period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo_period> "Edo period") (often called the [Late Tokugawa shogunate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_Tokugawa_shogunate> "Late Tokugawa shogunate")).[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-32>)
Society in the Japanese "[Tokugawa period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate> "Tokugawa shogunate")" ([Edo society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edo_society> "Edo society")), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class [hierarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hierarchy> "Hierarchy") originally established by [Toyotomi Hideyoshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi> "Toyotomi Hideyoshi"). The _[daimyōs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Daimy%C5%8D> "Daimyō")_ (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the [warrior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Warrior> "Warrior")-caste of [samurai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Samurai> "Samurai"), with the [farmers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farmer> "Farmer"), [artisans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Artisans> "Artisans"), and [traders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Merchant> "Merchant") ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the _[Sakoku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sakoku> "Sakoku")_ policy.[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-HCAotW-33>) Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation.[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-HCAotW-33>)
In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, _daimyōs_ and samurai were more or less identical, since _daimyōs_ might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this [social stratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Social_stratification> "Social stratification") system unleashed disruptive forces over time. [Taxes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taxes> "Taxes") on the [peasantry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peasantry> "Peasantry") were set at fixed amounts which did not account for [inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inflation> "Inflation") or other changes in [monetary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Monetary> "Monetary") value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-34>)
#### Korean dynasty
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=7> "Edit section: Korean dynasty")]
In 1392, General [Yi Seong-gye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon> "Taejo of Joseon") established the [Joseon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Joseon> "Joseon") dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-35>) The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-36>)[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:1-37>) [King Sejong the Great](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sejong_the_Great_of_Joseon> "Sejong the Great of Joseon") (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the [Korean alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hangul> "Hangul").[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-38>)
During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral [Yi Sun-sin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Yi_Sun-sin> "Yi Sun-sin"), Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called [turtle ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turtle_ship> "Turtle ship"). Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion.[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:1-37>) During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing dynasty. In 1637, King [Injo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Injo_of_Joseon> "Injo of Joseon") was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince [Dorgon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dorgon> "Dorgon").[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-39>)
### South Asia
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=8> "Edit section: South Asia")]
#### Indian empires
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=9> "Edit section: Indian empires")]
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg/330px-Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg>)Map of the [Gunpowder Empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gunpowder_Empires> "Gunpowder Empires"), with the [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire") in orange [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg/250px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg>)The [Mughal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire") ambassador Khan'Alam in 1618 negotiating with [Shah Abbas the Great](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia> "Abbas I of Persia") of [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_dynasty> "Safavid dynasty")
The rise of the [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire") is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an [Islamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islamic_state> "Islamic state") [Persianate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persianate> "Persianate")[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-40>) imperial power that ruled most of the area as [Hindustan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustan> "Hindustan") by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-sscnet.ucla.edu-41>) The empire dominated [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/South_Asia> "South Asia"),[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-sscnet.ucla.edu-41>) becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power,[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Parthasarathi38-42>) with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-books.google.com-13>)[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-harrison-43>) The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb"),[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-BBC-44>) was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different [provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subah> "Subah"). All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The [Maratha Confederacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Confederacy> "Maratha Confederacy"), founded in the southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the [Third Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat> "Third Battle of Panipat") halted their expansion in 1761.[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-45>)
#### British and Dutch colonization
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=10> "Edit section: British and Dutch colonization")]
The development of [New Imperialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Imperialism> "New Imperialism") saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The [commercial colonization of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Company_rule_in_India> "Company rule in India") commenced in 1757, after the [Battle of Plassey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Plassey> "Battle of Plassey"), when the [Nawab of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal> "Nawab of Bengal") surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company,[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-46>)[_[citation not found](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work> "Template:Harvard citation documentation")_] in 1765, when the company was granted the _diwani_ , or the right to collect revenue, in [Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal> "Bengal") and [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bihar> "Bihar"),[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-47>)[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-48>) or in 1772, when the company established a capital in [Calcutta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Calcutta> "Calcutta"), appointed its first [Governor-General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Governor-General_of_India> "Governor-General of India"), [Warren Hastings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Warren_Hastings> "Warren Hastings"), and became directly involved in governance.[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-49>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg/250px-Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey,_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg>)[Robert Clive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Robert_Clive> "Robert Clive") and [Mir Jafar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mir_Jafar> "Mir Jafar") after the [Battle of Plassey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Plassey> "Battle of Plassey"), 1757, by Francis Hayman
The Maratha Confederacy, following the [Anglo-Maratha wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglo-Maratha_Wars_\(disambiguation\)> "Anglo-Maratha Wars \(disambiguation\)"), eventually lost to the [British East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_East_India_Company> "British East India Company") in 1818 with the [Third Anglo-Maratha War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War> "Third Anglo-Maratha War"). Rule by the Company lasted until 1858, when, after the [Indian rebellion of 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_rebellion_of_1857> "Indian rebellion of 1857") and following the [Government of India Act 1858](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858> "Government of India Act 1858"), the [British government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/India_Office> "India Office") assumed the task of directly administering India in the new [British Raj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Raj> "British Raj").[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-WDL-50>) In 1819, [Stamford Raffles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stamford_Raffles> "Stamford Raffles") established [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Singapore> "Singapore") as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an [Anglo-Dutch treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824> "Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824") demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear. 
### Southeast Asia
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=11> "Edit section: Southeast Asia")]
At the start of the modern era, the [Spice Route](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spice_Route> "Spice Route") between India and China crossed [Majapahit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Majapahit> "Majapahit"), an archipelagic empire based on the island of [Java](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Java_\(island\)> "Java \(island\)"). It was the last of the major [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindu> "Hindu") empires of [Maritime Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia> "Maritime Southeast Asia") and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history.[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Ricklefs_19-51>) Its influence extended to [Sumatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sumatra> "Sumatra"), the [Malay Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Malay_Peninsula> "Malay Peninsula"), [Borneo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Borneo> "Borneo"), and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated.[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-52>)[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-53>) Majapahit struggled to control the rising [Sultanate of Malacca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_Malacca> "Sultanate of Malacca"), which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528, the [Sultanate of Johor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_Johor> "Sultanate of Johor") was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca.[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-54>) While in Borneo, Brunei began their golden age during the reign of Sultan [Bolkiah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bolkiah> "Bolkiah") when he defeated the [Kingdom of Tondo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tondo_\(historical_polity\)> "Tondo \(historical polity\)") in the [Tondo War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tondo_War> "Tondo War") however but was paused when it fought the Spanish in the [Castilian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Castilian_War> "Castilian War") in 1578. It was later restarted again with the reign of Sultan [Muhammad Hassan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Hasan_of_Brunei> "Muhammad Hasan of Brunei"), later in 1660, [Brunei's first civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bruneian_Civil_War_of_1660> "Bruneian Civil War of 1660") started and in the aftermath of said war it paused Brunei's golden age once again until the reign of [Omar Ali Saifuddien I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Omar_Ali_Saifuddin_I> "Omar Ali Saifuddin I") defeating the [Sulu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu> "Sultanate of Sulu") in the [Twenty Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Twenty_Years%27_War> "Twenty Years' War"). 
### West Asia and North Africa
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=12> "Edit section: West Asia and North Africa")]
Main articles: [Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timeline_of_16th-century_Muslim_history> "Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history"), [Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timeline_of_17th-century_Muslim_history> "Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history"), and [Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timeline_of_18th-century_Muslim_history> "Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history")
#### Ottoman Empire
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=13> "Edit section: Ottoman Empire")]
Main articles: [Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire> "Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire"), [Transformation of the Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire> "Transformation of the Ottoman Empire"), and [Ottoman ancien régime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_ancien_r%C3%A9gime> "Ottoman ancien régime")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ottoman_empire.svg/250px-Ottoman_empire.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Ottoman_empire.svg>)Ottoman Empire 1481–1683
During the early modern era, the [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire") enjoyed an [expansion and consolidation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire> "Growth of the Ottoman Empire") of power, leading to a _[Pax Ottomana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pax_Ottomana> "Pax Ottomana")_.[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-55>)[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-56>) This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent [Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persia> "Persia") Shi'a [Safavid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Empire> "Safavid Empire") to the east. 
#### North Africa
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=14> "Edit section: North Africa")]
In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Algeria> "Ottoman Algeria"), [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia> "Ottoman Tunisia"), and [Tripolitania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Tripolitania> "Ottoman Tripolitania") (between 1519 and 1551), [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Morocco> "Morocco") remaining an independent [Arabized Berber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Arabized_Berber> "Arabized Berber") state under the [Sharifan dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Saadi_Sultanate> "Saadi Sultanate").[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-57>)[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-58>)
#### Safavid Iran
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=15> "Edit section: Safavid Iran")]
Main article: [Safavid Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Iran> "Safavid Iran")
The [Safavid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Empire> "Safavid Empire") was a great Shia [Persianate empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persianate_society> "Persianate society") after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east.[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-59>)[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-60>) The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in [Ardabil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ardabil> "Ardabil"), the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the [Sassanids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sassanids> "Sassanids") to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several [campaigns against the Safavids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars> "Ottoman–Persian Wars").[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-61>)
What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The [Silk Road](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Silk_Road> "Silk Road"), which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia.[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-62>)
#### Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=16> "Edit section: Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns")]
Main articles: [Uzbeks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Uzbeks> "Uzbeks") and [Pashtun people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pashtun_people> "Pashtun people")
In the 16th to early 18th centuries, [Central Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Central_Asia> "Central Asia") was under the rule of [Uzbeks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Uzbeks> "Uzbeks"), and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local [Pashtuns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pashtun_people> "Pashtun people"). Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the [Kipchaks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kipchaks> "Kipchaks"), [Naimans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Naimans> "Naimans"), [Kangly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kangly> "Kangly"), [Khongirad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khongirad> "Khongirad"), and [Manghuds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manghud> "Manghud"). These groups were led by [Muhammad Shaybani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Shaybani> "Muhammad Shaybani"), who was the [Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khan_\(title\)> "Khan \(title\)") of the Uzbeks. 
The lineage of the [Afghan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghan_\(name\)> "Afghan \(name\)") Pashtuns stretches back to the [Hotaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hotaki> "Hotaki") dynasty.[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-US_State_Dept-63>) Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun _[ghazis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghazw> "Ghazw")_ (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the [Lodhi dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lodhi_dynasty> "Lodhi dynasty") and [Suri dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Suri_dynasty> "Suri dynasty"). Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the [Battle of Gulnabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Gulnabad> "Battle of Gulnabad"). The Pashtuns later formed the [Durrani Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Durrani_Empire> "Durrani Empire"). 
### Sub-Saharan Africa
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=17> "Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa")]
Further information: [Dahomey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dahomey> "Dahomey"), [Aro Confederacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aro_Confederacy> "Aro Confederacy"), [Asante Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Asante_Empire> "Asante Empire"), [History of South Africa (1652–1815)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_South_Africa_\(1652%E2%80%931815\)> "History of South Africa \(1652–1815\)"), and [Atlantic slave trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade> "Atlantic slave trade")
The [Songhai Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Songhai_Empire> "Songhai Empire") took control of the [trans-Saharan trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade> "Trans-Saharan trade") at the beginning of the modern era. It seized [Timbuktu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timbuktu> "Timbuktu") in 1468 and [Jenne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Djenn%C3%A9> "Djenné") in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to [Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gao> "Gao").[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-multiple-64>)
## Europe
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=18> "Edit section: Europe")]
Main article: [Early Modern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_Modern_Europe> "Early Modern Europe")
Many major events caused [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Europe> "Europe") to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the [Fall of Constantinople](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople> "Fall of Constantinople") in 1453, the fall of [Muslim Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muslim_Spain> "Muslim Spain") and the discovery of the [Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Americas> "Americas") in 1492, and [Martin Luther](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Martin_Luther> "Martin Luther")'s [Protestant Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestant_Reformation> "Protestant Reformation") in 1517. In [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/England> "England") the modern period is often dated to the start of the [Tudor period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tudor_period> "Tudor period") with the victory of [Henry VII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Henry_VII_of_England> "Henry VII of England") over [Richard III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Richard_III_of_England> "Richard III of England") at the [Battle of Bosworth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth> "Battle of Bosworth") in 1485.[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-65>)[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-66>) Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment> "Age of Enlightenment") in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. 
The early modern period is taken to end with the [French Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolution> "French Revolution"), the [Napoleonic Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleonic_Wars> "Napoleonic Wars"), and the [Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire> "Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire") at the [Congress of Vienna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Congress_of_Vienna> "Congress of Vienna"). At the end of the early modern period, the [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_British_Empire> "Second British Empire") and [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Empire> "Russian Empire") empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of [colonial empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonial_empires> "Colonial empires"), while the three great [Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Asia> "Asia") empires of the early modern period, [Ottoman Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stagnation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire> "Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire"), [Mughal India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Empire#Decline> "Mughal Empire") and [Qing China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qing_China#Reigns_of_the_Yongzheng_and_Qianlong_emperors> "Qing China"), all entered a period of stagnation or decline. 
### Gunpowder and firearms
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=19> "Edit section: Gunpowder and firearms")]
Further information: [Military Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Military_Revolution> "Military Revolution")
When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:0-20>) The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between [arquebus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Arquebus> "Arquebus") and musket except in size and strength, it was the term _musket_ which remained in use up into the 1800s.[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-67>)
### European kingdoms and movements
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=20> "Edit section: European kingdoms and movements")]
In the early modern period, the [Holy Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire> "Holy Roman Empire") was a union of territories in Central Europe under a [Holy Roman Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor> "Holy Roman Emperor") the first of which was [Otto I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Otto_I> "Otto I"). The last was [Francis II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor> "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor"), who [abdicated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Abdication> "Abdication") and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the [Napoleonic Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleonic_Wars> "Napoleonic Wars"). Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. 
The [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance") was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century,[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-68>) beginning in Italy in the [Late Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_Middle_Ages> "Late Middle Ages") and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on [classical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_antiquity> "Classical antiquity") sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. 
#### Notable individuals
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=21> "Edit section: Notable individuals")]
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Press_-Bettman.jpg/250px-Press_-Bettman.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Press_-Bettman.jpg>)[Gutenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg> "Johannes Gutenberg") reviewing a press proof (a colored engraving created probably in the 19th century)
[Johannes Gutenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg> "Johannes Gutenberg") is credited as the first European to use [movable type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Movable_type> "Movable type") [printing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Printing> "Printing"), around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical [printing press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Printing_press> "Printing press"). [Nicolaus Copernicus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus> "Nicolaus Copernicus") formulated a comprehensive [heliocentric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Heliocentrism> "Heliocentrism") [cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cosmology> "Cosmology") (1543), which displaced the [Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Earth> "Earth") from the center of the universe.[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-69>) His book, _[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium> "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium")_ (_On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres_) began modern [astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomy> "Astronomy") and sparked the [Scientific Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scientific_Revolution> "Scientific Revolution"). Another notable individual was [Machiavelli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Machiavelli> "Machiavelli"), an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern [political science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Political_science> "Political science"). Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, [The Prince](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_Prince> "The Prince"), a work of [realist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Political_realism> "Political realism") [political theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Political_theory> "Political theory"). The Swiss [Paracelsus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Paracelsus> "Paracelsus") (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-70>) while the Anglo-Irish [Robert Boyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Robert_Boyle> "Robert Boyle") was one of the founders of modern chemistry.[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-71>) In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely [Leonardo da Vinci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci> "Leonardo da Vinci"), [Michelangelo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Michelangelo> "Michelangelo"), and [Raphael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Raphael> "Raphael"),[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-72>) [Albrecht Dürer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer> "Albrecht Dürer") (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance),[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-73>) [Titian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Titian> "Titian") from the [Venetian school](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Venetian_painting> "Venetian painting"),[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-74>) [Peter Paul Rubens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens> "Peter Paul Rubens") of the Flemish Baroque traditions.[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-75>) Famous composers included [Guillaume Du Fay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guillaume_Du_Fay> "Guillaume Du Fay"), [Heinrich Isaac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Heinrich_Isaac> "Heinrich Isaac"), [Josquin des Prez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Josquin_des_Prez> "Josquin des Prez"), [Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina> "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina"), [Claudio Monteverdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi> "Claudio Monteverdi"), [Jean-Baptiste Lully](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully> "Jean-Baptiste Lully").[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-76>)[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-77>)
Among the notable royalty of the time was [Charles the Bold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Charles_the_Bold> "Charles the Bold") (1433–1477), the last [Valois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/House_of_Valois> "House of Valois") [Duke of Burgundy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy> "Duke of Burgundy"), known as _Charles the Bold (or Rash)_ to his enemies,[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-78>) His early death was a pivotal moment in European history.[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-79>) Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit,[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-80>) although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations.[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-81>)[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-82>) Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, [Mary of Burgundy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy> "Mary of Burgundy"), as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. [Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor> "Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor") secured the match for his son, the future [Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor> "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor"), with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the [Duchy of Burgundy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy> "Duchy of Burgundy") was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, [Archduke of Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Archduke_of_Austria> "Archduke of Austria"). A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-83>)) and France ensued, culminating in the [Treaty of Senlis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaty_of_Senlis> "Treaty of Senlis") (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482).[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-84>) The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance.[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201378-85>)
In Central Europe, King [Matthias Corvinus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Matthias_Corvinus> "Matthias Corvinus") (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-86>)) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy.[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-87>)[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-88>) In military area, he introduced the [Black Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Black_Army_of_Hungary> "Black Army of Hungary"), one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-89>)[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-90>)
Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-91>) [Chevalier de Bayard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pierre_Terrail,_seigneur_de_Bayard> "Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard") (1476–1524),[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-92>) [Franz von Sickingen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Franz_von_Sickingen> "Franz von Sickingen") (1481–1523)[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-93>) and [Götz von Berlichingen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/G%C3%B6tz_von_Berlichingen> "Götz von Berlichingen") (1480–1562).[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-94>) Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-95>)) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-96>)[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Kersken-97>)[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-98>) and communications,[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-99>) [among others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor#Legacy> "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor")), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons)[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Kersken-97>) and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-100>)[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-101>)[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Kersken-97>)
### Christians and Christendom
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=22> "Edit section: Christians and Christendom")]
Main articles: [History of Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Christianity> "History of Christianity") and [Christendom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christendom> "Christendom")
Johann Sebastian Bach – Mass in B minor – Agnus Dei, From 1724
Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the [fall of Constantinople](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople> "Fall of Constantinople") in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the [Counter Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter_Reformation> "Counter Reformation"). 
#### End of the Crusades and Unity
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=23> "Edit section: End of the Crusades and Unity")]
The [Hussite Crusades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hussite_Crusades> "Hussite Crusades") (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of [Jan Hus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jan_Hus> "Jan Hus") in [Bohemia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bohemia> "Bohemia"), concluding with the [Battle of Grotniki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Grotniki> "Battle of Grotniki"). These wars were notable for being among the first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like [muskets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muskets> "Muskets"), played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive.[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-102>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg/250px-Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg>)[Battle of Vienna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Vienna> "Battle of Vienna"), 12 September 1683
The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire") and lift the [Siege of Belgrade (1456)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_\(1456\)> "Siege of Belgrade \(1456\)"), led by [John Hunyadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/John_Hunyadi> "John Hunyadi") and [Giovanni da Capistrano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Giovanni_da_Capistrano> "Giovanni da Capistrano"). The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of [Christendom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christendom> "Christendom").[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-103>) The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day. 
Nearly a century later, the [Peace of Augsburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg> "Peace of Augsburg") (1555) ended the concept of a united Christian church. The principle of _[cuius regio, eius religio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio> "Cuius regio, eius religio")_ allowed rulers to determine their state's religion. This framework was solidified by the [Treaty of Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia> "Treaty of Westphalia") (1648), which ended the [European Wars of Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Wars_of_Religion> "European Wars of Religion") and the notion of a singular Christian hegemony. The treaty also marked the birth of the modern concept of national sovereignty.[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-104>)
#### Inquisitions and Reformations
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=24> "Edit section: Inquisitions and Reformations")]
Main articles: [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation"), [Counter-Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter-Reformation> "Counter-Reformation"), [Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inquisition> "Inquisition"), and [Spanish Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_Inquisition> "Spanish Inquisition")
The [Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inquisition> "Inquisition") in the modern era refers to several institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with prosecuting [heretics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Heretics> "Heretics") and others who violated [canon law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Canon_law> "Canon law"). The first significant manifestation was the [Spanish Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_Inquisition> "Spanish Inquisition") (1478–1834).[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105>) The Inquisition prosecuted crimes such as [sorcery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Magic_\(supernatural\)> "Magic \(supernatural\)"), [blasphemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Blasphemy> "Blasphemy"), [Judaizing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Judaizing> "Judaizing"), [witchcraft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Witchcraft> "Witchcraft"), and [censorship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Censorship> "Censorship") of printed literature. Its jurisdiction was limited to baptized Catholics, while non-Christians were typically tried by secular courts.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg/250px-Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg>)[Martin Luther](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Martin_Luther> "Martin Luther") hammers his [95 theses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ninety-five_Theses> "Ninety-five Theses") to the door, by [Ferdinand Pauwels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ferdinand_Pauwels> "Ferdinand Pauwels")
The [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation") and rise of [modernity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modernity> "Modernity") in the early 16th century brought changes to [Christendom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christendom> "Christendom"). The Augustinian friar [Martin Luther](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Martin_Luther> "Martin Luther") in [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Germany> "History of Germany") challenged the Church with his [Ninety-five Theses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ninety-five_Theses> "Ninety-five Theses"), marking the start of the Reformation. Luther's movement, supported by the [Electorate of Saxony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony> "Electorate of Saxony"), developed at the [University of Wittenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/University_of_Wittenberg> "University of Wittenberg"), where he became a professor.[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Simon-120-121-106>)
Luther's 95 Theses criticized practices like the sale of [indulgences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indulgences> "Indulgences") and sparked debates, leading to the rise of rival [Protestant denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestant_denominations> "Protestant denominations"), such as [Lutheranism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lutheranism> "Lutheranism") and the [Reformed tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformed_tradition> "Reformed tradition"). In England, the movement became known as the [English Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_Reformation> "English Reformation"), resulting in the formation of [Anglicanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglicanism> "Anglicanism").[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105>)
The [Diet of Worms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Diet_of_Worms> "Diet of Worms") (1521) declared Luther a heretic, but Emperor [Charles V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor> "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor") was preoccupied with external threats and allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the [Edict of Worms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edict_of_Worms> "Edict of Worms"). The religious conflict escalated, leading to the formation of the [Schmalkaldic League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Schmalkaldic_League> "Schmalkaldic League") to defend Protestant interests. This culminated in the [Peace of Augsburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg> "Peace of Augsburg") (1555), which established the principle of [cuius regio, eius religio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio> "Cuius regio, eius religio")—allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories.[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-107>)
Two main Inquisitions remained active in the modern era: 
  * The [Portuguese Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition> "Portuguese Inquisition") (1536–1821), similar to the Spanish Inquisition.[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-108>)
  * The [Roman Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Inquisition> "Roman Inquisition") (1542–circa 1860), covering most of the Italian peninsula and certain other areas.[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-109>)


The [Counter-Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter-Reformation> "Counter-Reformation") began in 1545 with the [Council of Trent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Council_of_Trent> "Council of Trent") in response to the Protestant Reformation. Its goal was to reform internal Church practices while reaffirming the Church's authority as the true [Church of Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Church_of_Christ> "Church of Christ").[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-110>)
#### Tsardom of Russia
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=25> "Edit section: Tsardom of Russia")]
Main article: [Tsardom of Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia> "Tsardom of Russia")
In development of the [Third Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Rome> "Third Rome") ideas, the Grand Duke [Ivan IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ivan_IV> "Ivan IV") (the "Awesome"[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-111>) or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first [Tsar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tsar> "Tsar") ("[Caesar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Caesar_\(title\)> "Caesar \(title\)")") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ([Sudebnik of 1550](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sudebnik_of_1550> "Sudebnik of 1550")), established the first Russian feudal representative body ([Zemsky Sobor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zemsky_Sobor> "Zemsky Sobor")) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-112>)[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-113>) During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated [Golden Horde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Golden_Horde> "Golden Horde")): [Kazan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan> "Khanate of Kazan") and [Astrakhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate> "Astrakhan Khanate") along the Volga River, and [Sibirean Khanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sibirean_Khanate> "Sibirean Khanate") in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a [multiethnic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Multiethnic> "Multiethnic"), multiconfessional and [transcontinental state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Transcontinental_state> "Transcontinental state"). 
Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of [Cossacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cossacks> "Cossacks"). Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling [pirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pirate> "Pirate") and [pioneers of the New World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pioneers_of_the_New_World> "Pioneers of the New World"). The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the border with the [steppe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eurasian_Steppe> "Eurasian Steppe") and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts. 
#### Mercantile capitalism
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=26> "Edit section: Mercantile capitalism")]
Main articles: [Mercantilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mercantilism> "Mercantilism") and [Merchant capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Merchant_capitalism> "Merchant capitalism")
##### Trade and the new economy
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=27> "Edit section: Trade and the new economy")]
In the [Old World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_World> "Old World"), the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and [spices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spice> "Spice"). Western Europeans used the [compass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Compass> "Compass"), new [sailing ship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sailing_ship> "Sailing ship") technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable [trade route](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Trade_route> "Trade route") to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest. 
##### Piracy's Golden Age
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=28> "Edit section: Piracy's Golden Age")]
Main article: [Golden Age of Piracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy> "Golden Age of Piracy")
The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of [piracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Piracy> "Piracy") in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The [buccaneering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Buccaneer> "Buccaneer") period covers approximately the late 17th century. This period was characterized by Anglo-French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific.[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-114>) The [Pirate Round](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pirate_Round> "Pirate Round") was a route followed by certain Anglo-American pirates in the early 18th century, involving voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea.[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-115>) The post-War of the Spanish Succession period saw many unemployed sailors and privateers turning to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean.[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-116>)
#### European states and politics
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=29> "Edit section: European states and politics")]
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG/330px-Europe_map_1648.PNG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Europe_map_1648.PNG>)Europe after the [Peace of Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia> "Peace of Westphalia") in 1648
The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many [intellectual](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Intellectual> "Intellectual") pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such [polymaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polymath> "Polymath") as [Leonardo da Vinci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci> "Leonardo da Vinci") and [Michelangelo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Michelangelo> "Michelangelo"), who inspired the term "[Renaissance man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polymath> "Polymath")".[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-117>)[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-118>)
The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern [diplomatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Diplomacy> "Diplomacy") congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The [Treaty of the Pyrenees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees> "Treaty of the Pyrenees"), signed in 1659, ended the [war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/War> "War") between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord. 
##### French power
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=30> "Edit section: French power")]
Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include [Mazarin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin> "Cardinal Mazarin"), [Jean-Baptiste Colbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert> "Jean-Baptiste Colbert"), [Turenne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Henri_de_la_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Vicomte_de_Turenne> "Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne"), [Vauban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Vauban> "Vauban"). French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including [Molière](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Moli%C3%A8re> "Molière"), [Racine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jean_Racine> "Jean Racine"), [Boileau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nicolas_Boileau-Despr%C3%A9aux> "Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux"), [La Fontaine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontaine> "Jean de La Fontaine"), [Lully](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully> "Jean-Baptiste Lully"), [Le Brun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Charles_Le_Brun> "Charles Le Brun"), [Rigaud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hyacinthe_Rigaud> "Hyacinthe Rigaud"), [Louis Le Vau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Louis_Le_Vau> "Louis Le Vau"), [Jules Hardouin Mansart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jules_Hardouin_Mansart> "Jules Hardouin Mansart"), [Claude Perrault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Claude_Perrault> "Claude Perrault") and [Le Nôtre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Le_N%C3%B4tre> "André Le Nôtre"). 
##### Early English revolutions
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=31> "Edit section: Early English revolutions")]
Before the Age of Revolution, the [English Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_Civil_War> "English Civil War") was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. The [English Restoration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_Restoration> "English Restoration"), or simply put as the Restoration, began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War. The [Glorious Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Glorious_Revolution> "Glorious Revolution") of 1688 establishes modern [parliamentary democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Parliamentary_democracy> "Parliamentary democracy") in England. 
##### International balance of power
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=32> "Edit section: International balance of power")]
The [Peace of Utrecht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht> "Peace of Utrecht") established after a series of individual [peace treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_treaty> "Peace treaty") signed in the [Dutch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_Republic> "Dutch Republic") city of [Utrecht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Utrecht_\(city\)> "Utrecht \(city\)") concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and [Philip V of Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain> "Philip V of Spain") on the one hand, and representatives of Queen [Anne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain> "Anne, Queen of Great Britain") of [Great Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain> "Kingdom of Great Britain"), the [Duke of Savoy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy> "Duchy of Savoy"), and the [United Provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_Republic> "Dutch Republic") on the other. The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of [Louis XIV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France> "Louis XIV of France") and preserved the European system based on the [balance of power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations> "Balance of power in international relations").[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-119>) The [Treaty of Utrecht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht> "Treaty of Utrecht") marked the change from [Dutch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_Empire> "Dutch Empire") to [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain> "Kingdom of Great Britain") naval supremacy. 
## Americas
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=33> "Edit section: Americas")]
Main articles: [European colonization of the Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas> "European colonization of the Americas"), [History of colonialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_colonialism> "History of colonialism"), and [New World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_World> "New World")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Colonisation2.gif/960px-Colonisation2.gif)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Colonisation2.gif>)World Colonization of 1492 (Early Modern World), 1550, 1660, 1754 (Age of Enlightenment), 1822 (Industrial revolution), 1885 (European Hegemony), 1914 (World War I era), 1938 (World War II era), 1959 (Cold War era) and 1974, 2008 (Recent history)
The term _colonialism_ is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to [Sub-Saharan Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa> "Sub-Saharan Africa"), the Americas, Australia and the [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philippines> "Philippines"). 
### Exploration and conquest of the Americas
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=34> "Edit section: Exploration and conquest of the Americas")]
Main articles: [Spanish colonization of the Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Spanish colonization of the Americas") and [Portuguese colonization of the Americas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Portuguese colonization of the Americas")
### Colonial Latin America
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=35> "Edit section: Colonial Latin America")]
See also: [New Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Spain> "New Spain"), [Spanish empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_empire> "Spanish empire"), and [Colonial Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonial_Brazil> "Colonial Brazil")
Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in [sugarcane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sugarcane> "Sugarcane"). Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-120>)
### Colonial North America
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=36> "Edit section: Colonial North America")]
See also: [New Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Spain> "New Spain"), [New France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_France> "New France"), [New Netherland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Netherland> "New Netherland"), [Colonial history of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States> "Colonial history of the United States"), and [History of Canada (1763–1867)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Canada_\(1763%E2%80%931867\)> "History of Canada \(1763–1867\)")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/250px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_\(1819\),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg>)[John Trumbull](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/John_Trumbull> "John Trumbull")'s _[Declaration of Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_\(Trumbull\)> "Declaration of Independence \(Trumbull\)")_ , showing the [Committee of Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Committee_of_Five> "Committee of Five") in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the [Second Continental Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Continental_Congress> "Second Continental Congress") in [Philadelphia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philadelphia> "Philadelphia")
North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in [New Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Spain> "New Spain") or the Caribbean islands. France, The Netherlands, and Great Britain held colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century, 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called [New Netherland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Netherland> "New Netherland") (now [New York State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_York_State> "New York State").). France colonized what is now [Eastern Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Canada> "Eastern Canada"), founding [Quebec City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Quebec_City> "Quebec City") in 1608. France's loss in the [Seven Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seven_Years%27_War> "Seven Years' War") resulted in the transfer of [New France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_France> "New France") to Great Britain. 
The [Thirteen Colonies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Thirteen_Colonies> "Thirteen Colonies"), in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule through 1765–1783, due to various factors such as belief in natural rights, the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in, and opposition to monarchy. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on 4 July 1776, and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the [American Revolutionary War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/American_Revolutionary_War> "American Revolutionary War"), Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-121>)
## Atlantic World
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=37> "Edit section: Atlantic World")]
See also: [Atlantic history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atlantic_history> "Atlantic history")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg/330px-Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg>)[Waldseemüller map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller_map> "Waldseemüller map") with joint sheets, 1507
A key development in early modern history is the creation of the [Atlantic World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atlantic_World> "Atlantic World") as a category. The term generally encompasses Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It seeks to illustrate both local and regional developments, as well as the connections between these geographical regions through trade, migration, and cultural exchange.[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-122>)
## Religion, science, philosophy, and education
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=38> "Edit section: Religion, science, philosophy, and education")]
Further information: [History of religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_religion> "History of religion") and [History of philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_philosophy> "History of philosophy")
### Protestant Reformation
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=39> "Edit section: Protestant Reformation")]
Main article: [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation")
The early modern period was initiated by the Reformation and the collapse of the unity of the medieval [Western Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Catholic_Church> "Catholic Church"). The theology of [Calvinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Calvinism> "Calvinism") in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of [capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Capitalism> "Capitalism"). Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called _[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism> "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism")._
### Counter-Reformation and Jesuits
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=40> "Edit section: Counter-Reformation and Jesuits")]
Main article: [Counter-Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter-Reformation> "Counter-Reformation")
The Counter-Reformation was a period of [Catholic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church> "Roman Catholic Church") revival in response to the [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation") during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical reforms as well as political and spiritual movements. 
Such reforms included the foundation of [seminaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seminaries> "Seminaries") for the proper training of priests, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with [Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christ> "Christ"), including the [Spanish mystics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_mystics> "Spanish mystics") and the [French school of spirituality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_school_of_spirituality> "French school of spirituality"). It also involved political activities that included the [Roman Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Inquisition> "Roman Inquisition").[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-123>)
New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the [Capuchins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin> "Order of Friars Minor Capuchin"), [Ursulines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ursulines> "Ursulines"), [Theatines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Theatines> "Theatines"), [Discalced Carmelites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Discalced_Carmelites> "Discalced Carmelites"), the [Barnabites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barnabites> "Barnabites"), and especially the [Jesuits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Society_of_Jesus> "Society of Jesus") strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church, and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-124>)
### Scientific Revolution
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=41> "Edit section: Scientific Revolution")]
See also: [History of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_science> "History of science") and [Science in the Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment> "Science in the Age of Enlightenment")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png/250px-PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png>)Model for the Three Superior Planets and Venus from [Georg von Peuerbach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Georg_von_Peuerbach> "Georg von Peuerbach"), _Theoricae novae planetarum_
The [Great Divergence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Great_Divergence> "Great Divergence") in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world. 
During the [Scientific Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scientific_Revolution> "Scientific Revolution") of the 16th and 17th centuries, [empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empiricism> "Empiricism") and [modern science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_science> "Modern science") replaced older methods of studying nature, which had relied on ancient texts by writers like Aristotle. By the time of the Revolution, these methods resulted in an accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from ancient Greece and Islamic scholars. Major changes during the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included: 
  * The ancient [geocentric model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Geocentric_model> "Geocentric model") of the [Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Solar_System> "Solar System") (the other planets circle the Earth) was replaced by the [heliocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Heliocentrism> "Heliocentrism") (the planets circle the Sun). This shift, known as the [Copernican Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Copernican_Revolution> "Copernican Revolution"), is marked by the 1543 publication of [Nicolaus Copernicus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus> "Nicolaus Copernicus")'s _[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium> "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium")_. Copernicus' work, influenced by earlier scholars such as [Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi> "Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi"), sparked a significant paradigm shift. The [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Catholic_Church> "Catholic Church") resisted this theory, and the [Inquisition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inquisition> "Inquisition") famously imprisoned [Galileo Galilei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Galileo_Galilei> "Galileo Galilei") for promoting it.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-125>)
  * Using precise astronomical observations by [Tycho Brahe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tycho_Brahe> "Tycho Brahe"), [Johannes Kepler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Johannes_Kepler> "Johannes Kepler") developed [Kepler's laws of planetary motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion> "Kepler's laws of planetary motion"), demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles.[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-126>) The idea that the stars were fixed on celestial spheres was replaced by the idea that stars are distant suns. [Astrology and astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy> "Astrology and astronomy") began to separate into different disciplines, with only [astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomy> "Astronomy") using scientific methods. [Telescope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Telescope> "Telescope") technology improved tremendously as did the [study of optics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_optics> "History of optics").[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-127>)
  * [Aristotle's laws of motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aristotelian_physics#Natural_motion> "Aristotelian physics") were replaced by [Newton's laws of motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion> "Newton's laws of motion") and [Newton's law of universal gravitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation> "Newton's law of universal gravitation"). The 1687 publication of [Isaac Newton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Isaac_Newton> "Isaac Newton")'s _[Principia Mathematica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica> "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica")_ is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution, as it established the fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-128>)
  * Advances in anatomy were marked by the publication of _[De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem> "De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem")_ (1543) by [Andreas Vesalius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Andreas_Vesalius> "Andreas Vesalius"), which revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy and corrected errors in the works of [Galen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Galen> "Galen").[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-129>) In 1628, [William Harvey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/William_Harvey> "William Harvey")'s _[De Motu Cordis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/De_Motu_Cordis> "De Motu Cordis")_ advanced knowledge of the [circulatory system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Circulatory_system> "Circulatory system").[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-130>)
  * Both the 8th century Islamic experimenter [Jabir ibn Hayyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan> "Jabir ibn Hayyan") and the 17th century scientist [Robert Boyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Robert_Boyle> "Robert Boyle") have been described as founders of modern [chemistry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chemistry> "Chemistry"). Both worked as [alchemists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alchemists> "Alchemists") before the fields were clearly separated. Boyle argued for [corpuscularianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Corpuscularianism> "Corpuscularianism") in the 1661 book _[The Sceptical Chymist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist> "The Sceptical Chymist")_ and discovered [Boyle's law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Boyle%27s_law> "Boyle's law") of gases. The [chemical revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chemical_revolution> "Chemical revolution") followed with the discovery of the [conservation of mass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Conservation_of_mass> "Conservation of mass"), which led to the rejection of [phlogiston theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Phlogiston_theory> "Phlogiston theory") and the identification of chemical elements.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-131>)
  * Modern scientific [dentistry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dentistry> "Dentistry") was founded by [Pierre Fauchard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pierre_Fauchard> "Pierre Fauchard"), who is credited with pioneering dental techniques in his 1728 work _Le Chirurgien Dentiste_.[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-132>)
  * The [smallpox vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Smallpox_vaccine> "Smallpox vaccine") was invented in the 1770s and popularized by [Edward Jenner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edward_Jenner> "Edward Jenner") in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-133>)
  * The ancient theory of [spontaneous generation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spontaneous_generation> "Spontaneous generation") remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the [history of evolutionary thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought> "History of evolutionary thought") includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial [common descent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Common_descent> "Common descent") was famously promoted by [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon> "Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon"). [Evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Evolution> "Evolution") was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-134>)
  * The invention of the [microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Microscope> "Microscope") led to the development of [microbiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Microbiology> "Microbiology"), with early observations of microorganisms by [Antonie van Leeuwenhoek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek> "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek") in the 1670s.[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-135>)
  * [Carl Linnaeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carl_Linnaeus> "Carl Linnaeus") published the first modern [taxonomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taxonomy_\(biology\)> "Taxonomy \(biology\)") in _[Systema Naturae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Systema_Naturae> "Systema Naturae")_ (1735), introducing the classification of organisms into hierarchical categories and replacing Aristotle's ideas.[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-136>)
  * Early modern [geology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Geology> "Geology") was established with the work of [Nicolas Steno](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nicolas_Steno> "Nicolas Steno"), who proposed the [law of superposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Law_of_superposition> "Law of superposition") in 1669, and the systematic study of fossils and rock types began to question the biblical age of the Earth.[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-137>)
  * Early developments in the [history of electromagnetism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_electromagnetism> "History of electromagnetism") included research into the relationship between [electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Electricity> "Electricity") and [magnetism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Magnetism> "Magnetism"), the development of the [electrostatic generator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Electrostatic_generator> "Electrostatic generator"), and the discovery of [Coulomb's law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Coulomb%27s_law> "Coulomb's law") in 1784, which described the force between electric charges.[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-138>)


In the [social sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Social_science> "Social science"): 
  * [Historical linguistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Historical_linguistics> "Historical linguistics") began in the late 18th century, with [William Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/William_Jones_\(philologist\)> "William Jones \(philologist\)") identifying the common origin of what are now called [Indo-European languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-European_languages> "Indo-European languages").[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-139>)
  * The fields of [anthropology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anthropology> "Anthropology") and [paleoanthropology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Paleoanthropology> "Paleoanthropology") emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered [scientific racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scientific_racism> "Scientific racism").
  * [Adam Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Adam_Smith> "Adam Smith")'s work, such as his seminal book _The Wealth of Nations_ , has been interpreted as the foundation of [classical economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_economics> "Classical economics").[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-140>)


### Technology
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=42> "Edit section: Technology")]
Main article: [Renaissance technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_technology> "Renaissance technology")
Inventions of the early modern period included the [floating dock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Floating_dock_\(impounded\)> "Floating dock \(impounded\)"), [lifting tower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lifting_tower> "Lifting tower"), [newspaper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Newspaper> "Newspaper"), [grenade musket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Grenade_musket> "Grenade musket"), [lightning rod](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lightning_rod> "Lightning rod"), [bifocals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bifocals> "Bifocals"), and [Franklin stove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Franklin_stove> "Franklin stove"). Early attempts at building a practical [electrical telegraph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Electrical_telegraph> "Electrical telegraph") were hindered because [static electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Static_electricity> "Static electricity") was the only source available. 
### Enlightenment and reason
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=43> "Edit section: Enlightenment and reason")]
Main article: [17th century in philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/17th_century_in_philosophy> "17th century in philosophy")
Further information: [Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment> "Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment") and [Philosophical skepticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philosophical_skepticism> "Philosophical skepticism")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/250px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg>)"If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it." An engraving from the 1772 edition of the _[Encyclopédie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die> "Encyclopédie")_ ; [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Truth> "Truth") (center) is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, [Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philosophy> "Philosophy") and [Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reason> "Reason").
The [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment> "Age of Enlightenment") is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a departure from the medieval tradition of [scholasticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scholasticism> "Scholasticism"), which was rooted in Christian dogma, and from [Renaissance philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_philosophy> "Renaissance philosophy")'s occultist approaches. Instead, reason became the central source of knowledge, initiating the era of [modern philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_philosophy> "Modern philosophy"), especially in [Western philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_philosophy> "Western philosophy").[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-141>) This period in Europe was characterized by system-builders—philosophers who established unified theories of [epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Epistemology> "Epistemology"), [metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Metaphysics> "Metaphysics"), [logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Logic> "Logic"), [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ethics> "Ethics"), and sometimes even [politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Politics> "Politics") and the [physical sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Physical_sciences> "Physical sciences").[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-142>)
Early 17th-century philosophy is often referred to as the Age of Rationalism, succeeding Renaissance philosophy and preceding the Enlightenment. Some consider it the earliest part of the Enlightenment, stretching over two centuries. This era includes the works of [Isaac Newton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Isaac_Newton> "Isaac Newton") (1643–1727), such as [Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica> "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica") (1687), and the development of Descartes' famous proposition [Cogito, ergo sum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum> "Cogito, ergo sum") (1637).[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-143>) The first major advancements in modern science included Newton's theory of [gravity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gravity> "Gravity"), which, along with the contributions of [John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/John_Locke> "John Locke"), [Pierre Bayle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pierre_Bayle> "Pierre Bayle"), [Baruch Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baruch_Spinoza> "Baruch Spinoza"), and others, fueled the Enlightenment.[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-144>)
The 18th century saw the rise of [secularization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Secularization> "Secularization") in Europe, notably following the [French Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolution> "French Revolution"). [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Immanuel_Kant> "Immanuel Kant") classified his predecessors into two philosophical schools: [Rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rationalism> "Rationalism") and [Empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empiricism> "Empiricism").[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-145>) The former was represented by figures such as [René Descartes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes> "René Descartes"), [Baruch Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baruch_Spinoza> "Baruch Spinoza"), and [Gottfried Leibniz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz> "Gottfried Leibniz").[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-146>) [Roger Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roger_Williams> "Roger Williams") established the colony of [Providence Plantations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Providence_Plantations> "Providence Plantations") in New England on the principle of [separation of church and state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state> "Separation of church and state") after being exiled by the [Puritans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Puritans> "Puritans") of the [Massachusetts Bay Colony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony> "Massachusetts Bay Colony").[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-147>)
French [salon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Salon_\(gathering\)> "Salon \(gathering\)") culture played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, culminating in the influential [Encyclopédie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die> "Encyclopédie") (1751–72), edited by [Denis Diderot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Denis_Diderot> "Denis Diderot") with contributions from thinkers such as [Voltaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Voltaire> "Voltaire") and [Montesquieu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Montesquieu> "Montesquieu").[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-148>) The [Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns> "Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns") stirred debate within the [French Academy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Academy> "French Academy"), elevating contemporary knowledge over classical Greek and Roman wisdom. Enlightenment thought also significantly influenced [German philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/German_philosophy> "German philosophy"), fostered by [Frederick the Great](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Frederick_the_Great> "Frederick the Great"), with [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Immanuel_Kant> "Immanuel Kant") emerging as a leading figure. These developments also had profound impacts on the [Scottish Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment> "Scottish Enlightenment"), [Russian Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Enlightenment> "Russian Enlightenment"), [Enlightenment in Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain> "Enlightenment in Spain"), and [Enlightenment in Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland> "Enlightenment in Poland").[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-149>) The Enlightenment flourished until around 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to [Romanticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Romanticism> "Romanticism") and the growing influence of [Counter-Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter-Enlightenment> "Counter-Enlightenment") movements.[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-150>)
### Humanism
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=44> "Edit section: Humanism")]
Main article: [Humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humanism> "Humanism")
With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian [Renaissance Humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_Humanism> "Renaissance Humanism") spread northward to France, Germany, Holland and England, where it became associated with the Reformation. 
Developing during the Enlightenment era, [Renaissance humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_humanism> "Renaissance humanism") as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term _umanista_ comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the _[studia humanitatis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Studia_humanitatis> "Studia humanitatis")_ , a novel curriculum that was competing with the _[quadrivium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Quadrivium> "Quadrivium")_ and [scholastic logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scholastic_logic> "Scholastic logic").[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-151>)
In France, pre-eminent Humanist [Guillaume Budé](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guillaume_Bud%C3%A9> "Guillaume Budé") (1467–1540) applied the [philological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philology> "Philology") methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on [Justinian's Code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis> "Corpus Juris Civilis"). Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian _umanisti_), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for [Francis I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Francis_I_of_France> "Francis I of France") and helping to found the [Collège des Lecteurs Royaux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France> "Collège de France") (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, [Marguerite de Navarre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Marguerite_de_Navarre> "Marguerite de Navarre"), the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic,[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-152>) gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including [Clément Marot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Marot> "Clément Marot"), [Pierre de Ronsard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pierre_de_Ronsard> "Pierre de Ronsard") and [François Rabelais](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais> "François Rabelais"). 
## Death in the early modern period
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=45> "Edit section: Death in the early modern period")]
### Mortality rates
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=46> "Edit section: Mortality rates")]
During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book _Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900_ , Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>)
#### European infant mortality rates
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=47> "Edit section: European infant mortality rates")]
Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>)
For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in [Bavaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bavaria> "Bavaria"), there were 140–190 infant deaths reported for every 1,000 births.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) In France, [Beauvaisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Beauvaisis> "Beauvaisis") reported 140–160 infants dying per every 1,000 babies born.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) In what is now Italy, [Venice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Venice> "Venice") averaged 134 infant deaths per 1,000 births.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) In [Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Geneva> "Geneva"), 80–110 infants died per every 1,000 babies born. In Sweden, 70–95 infants died per 1,000 births in [Linköping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Link%C3%B6ping> "Linköping"), 48 infants died per 1,000 births in [Sundsvall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sundsvall> "Sundsvall"), and 41 infants died per 1,000 births in [Vastanfors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Vastanfors> "Vastanfors").[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>)
#### Causes of infant mortality
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=48> "Edit section: Causes of infant mortality")]
Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, [climate] is clearly the most important determinant of death".[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to. 
For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the [Italian] winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer".[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>) This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the [baptism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baptism> "Baptism") ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:4-153>)
### Capital punishment
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=49> "Edit section: Capital punishment")]
Main article: [Capital punishment § Modern era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Capital_punishment#Modern_era> "Capital punishment")
During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented.[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:2-154>) The number of criminals executed by [gibbeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gibbeting> "Gibbeting") increased,[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:3-155>) as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-:3-155>)
## See also
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=50> "Edit section: See also")]
  * [Cuisine in the early modern world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cuisine_in_the_early_modern_world> "Cuisine in the early modern world")
  * [Early modern warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_warfare> "Early modern warfare")
  * [Periodization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Periodization> "Periodization")
  * [Price revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Price_revolution> "Price revolution")
  * [Proto-globalization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-globalization> "Proto-globalization")


## References
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=51> "Edit section: References")]
  1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-1>)** [Christopher Alan Bayly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christopher_Bayly> "Christopher Bayly"), _The birth of the modern world, 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons_ (2004). P. 123.
  2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-2>)** de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". _The Economic History Review_. **63** (3): 710–733. [CiteSeerX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/CiteSeerX_\(identifier\)> "CiteSeerX \(identifier\)") [10.1.1.186.2862](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.186.2862>). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x>). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [40929823](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/40929823>). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [219969360](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219969360>). [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\)> "SSRN \(identifier\)") [1635517](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1635517>).
  3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-3>)** de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". _The Economic History Review_. **63** (3): 710–733. [CiteSeerX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/CiteSeerX_\(identifier\)> "CiteSeerX \(identifier\)") [10.1.1.186.2862](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.186.2862>). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x>). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [40929823](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/40929823>). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [219969360](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219969360>). [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\)> "SSRN \(identifier\)") [1635517](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1635517>).
  4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-4>)** Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (2021). _What is Early Modern History?_. Cambridge: Polity. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-509-54057-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-509-54057-0> "Special:BookSources/978-1-509-54057-0").
  5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-5>)** Maddison, Angus (2001), _The World Economy, Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective_ , OECD Publishing, pp. 51–52.
  6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-6>)** Crawley, C.W. (1965). [The new Cambridge modern history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cambridge_Modern_History> "Cambridge Modern History"). Volume 9., _War and peace in an age of upheaval, 1793–1830_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-7>)** Goldman, E.O., & Eliason, L.C. (2003). The diffusion of military technology and ideas. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-8>)** Boot, M. (2006). _War made new: Technology, warfare, and the course of history, 1500 to today_. New York: Gotham Books.[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-9>)** Bloy, Marjie (30 April 2002). ["The Congress of Vienna, 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html>). The Victorian Web. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20181004141242/http:/www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html>) from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2009.
  10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-10>)** Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). _Europe since 1815_. American historical series, H. Holt and Company.[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-11>)** Taylor, Alan (2001). [_American Colonies_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/americancolonies00tayl>). New York: Penguin Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-14-200210-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200210-0> "Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200210-0").
  12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-12>)** ["Ottoman Empire"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire>). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20080426002714/https:/www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire>) from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
  13. ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-books.google.com_13-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-books.google.com_13-1>) [Maddison, Angus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Angus_Maddison> "Angus Maddison") (2003): _[Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259>)_ , [OECD Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/OECD_Publishing> "OECD Publishing"), [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [9264104143](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/9264104143> "Special:BookSources/9264104143"), pp. 259–261
  14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-voss_14-0>)** [Roy, Tirthankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tirthankar_Roy> "Tirthankar Roy") (2010). ["The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255>). In Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (eds.). _The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000_. [Ashgate Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ashgate_Publishing> "Ashgate Publishing"). p. 255. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-7546-6428-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6428-4> "Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6428-4"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20191210055213/https:/books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255>) from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-vbl-151-152_15-0>)** Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). _Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland_. Cambridge University Press. pp. 150–154. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-521-80496-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80496-7> "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80496-7").
  16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-16>)** Wyatt, David K. (2003). _Thailand : A Short History_ (2nd ed.). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 109–110. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [974957544X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/974957544X> "Special:BookSources/974957544X").
  17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-17>)** Chapuis, Oscar. _[A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tự Đức](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&q=Vietnam+from+Hong+Bang+to+Tu+Duc>)_. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. p. 119. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20160811013749/https:/books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=Jskyi00bspcC&dq=Vietnam+from+Hong+Bang+to+Tu+Duc&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Zc-6W_VeyZ&sig=mUH2SUb0jMwEoQFmX_EB6XP_5KU#PPR10,M1>) 11 August 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wayback_Machine> "Wayback Machine")
  18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-18>)** Needham, Joseph (1956). "Mathematics and Science in China and the West". _Science & Society_. **20** (4): 320–343. [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [40400462](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/40400462>). [ProQuest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ProQuest> "ProQuest") [1296937594](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.proquest.com/docview/1296937594>).
  19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-19>)** Bala, A. (2006). _The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science_. Springer. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-230-60121-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60121-5> "Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60121-5").[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  20. ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:0_20-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:0_20-1>) [Andrade, Tonio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tonio_Andrade> "Tonio Andrade") (2016). _The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History_. Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-4008-7444-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7444-6> "Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7444-6").[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-21>)** Elman, Benjamin A. (2005). _On Their Own Terms_. Harvard University Press. pp. 65–66. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [0-674-01685-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01685-8> "Special:BookSources/0-674-01685-8").
  22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-22>)** Flynn, Dennis O.; Giraldez, Arturo (1995). "Arbitrage, China, and World Trade in the Early Modern Period". _Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient_. **38** (4): 429–448. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1163/1568520952600308](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1163%2F1568520952600308>). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [3632434](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/3632434>).
  23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-23>)** Frank, Andre Gunder (1998). [_ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/reorient00andr>). Berkeley: University of California Press. [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hdl_\(identifier\)> "Hdl \(identifier\)"):[2027/heb.31038.0001.001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fheb.31038.0001.001>). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0520214743](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520214743> "Special:BookSources/978-0520214743").
  24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-24>)** ["The Ming Voyages | Asia for Educators | Columbia University"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm#decision>). _afe.easia.columbia.edu_. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20100306203037/http:/afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm#decision>) from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-25>)** ["Chapter 8 The New World"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20190413015658/http:/mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~gel115/115CH8.html>). _mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu_. Archived from [the original](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/115ch8.html>) on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-26>)** Barraclough, Geoffrey (2003). _HarperCollins Atlas of World History_. HarperCollins. pp. 168–169. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-681-50288-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-681-50288-8> "Special:BookSources/978-0-681-50288-8"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\)> "OCLC \(identifier\)") [56350180](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/oclc/56350180>).
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  28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-28>)** Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000). ["Conquest and the Blessing of the Past"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA29>). _A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology_. University of California Press. pp. 26–36. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-520-92884-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8> "Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20200812213657/https:/books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA29>) from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-29>)** R. Keith Schoppa (2000). [_The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=iAhSGNGnhFMC&pg=PR15>). Columbia University Press. p. 15. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-231-50037-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50037-1> "Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50037-1"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20200801034736/https:/books.google.com/books?id=iAhSGNGnhFMC&pg=PR15>) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
  30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-30>)** Goldstein, Darra; Merkle, Kathrin; Mennell, Stephen (2006). _Culinary Cultures of Europe: Identity, Diversity and Dialogue_. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. p. 350. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-9-28715-744-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-28715-744-7> "Special:BookSources/978-9-28715-744-7").
  31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-31>)** _Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan_ (First edition, 1983), section "Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568–1600)" by George Elison, in the entry for "history of Japan".[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-32>)** Henshall, Kenneth (2014). [_Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=tmYYAgAAQBAJ>). Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 91. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-81087-872-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-81087-872-3> "Special:BookSources/978-0-81087-872-3").
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  37. ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:1_37-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:1_37-1>) Tae-gyu, Kim (29 May 2012). "Joseon: Korea's Confucian kingdom". _The Korea Times_. [ProQuest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ProQuest> "ProQuest") [1990192832](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.proquest.com/docview/1990192832>).
  38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-38>)** Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2001). _The Korean Language_. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 13. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-79149-130-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-79149-130-0> "Special:BookSources/978-0-79149-130-0").
  39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-39>)** Wakeman, Frederic E. (1985). [_The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892>). University of California Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0520048041](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520048041> "Special:BookSources/978-0520048041"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20160429100458/https:/books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892>) from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-40>)** L. Canfield, Robert; Jonathan Haas (2002). _Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective_. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-521-52291-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5> "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5").
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  119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-119>)** Palmer, Robert Roswell (1962). _A History of the Modern World_. Knopf. p. 234. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\)> "OCLC \(identifier\)") [1000384424](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/oclc/1000384424>).
  120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-120>)** [James Lockhart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/James_Lockhart_\(historian\)> "James Lockhart \(historian\)") and [Stuart B. Schwartz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stuart_B._Schwartz> "Stuart B. Schwartz"), _Early Latin America_. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources> "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_]
  121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-121>)** ["Treaty of Paris (1783)"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-paris>). 16 April 2021.
  122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-122>)** Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780521789783.
  123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-123>)** Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495-1540. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8232-1275-0.
  124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-124>)** Ditchfield, Simon. "The Catholic Reformation." Renaissance Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, 2001, pp. 390-409. DOI:10.1111/1477-4658.00088.
  125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-125>)** Machamer, Peter (1998). _The Cambridge Companion to Galileo_. Cambridge University Press. p. 393.
  126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-126>)** Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). _The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction_. Oxford University Press. p. 65.
  127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-127>)** Hawking, Stephen (2001). _The Universe in a Nutshell_. Bantam Books. p. 66.
  128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-128>)** White, Michael (1998). _Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer_. Basic Books.
  129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-129>)** Nutton, Vivian (2004). _Ancient Medicine_. Routledge. p. 204.
  130. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-130>)** Wear, Andrew (2000). _Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680_. Cambridge University Press. pp. 278–280.
  131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-131>)** Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. (2012). _The Chemical Choir: A History of Alchemy_. Continuum.
  132. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-132>)** Ring, Malvin E. (1992). _Pierre Fauchard and the Founding of Modern Dentistry_. Journal of the History of Dentistry.
  133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-133>)** Riedel, Stefan (2005). _Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination_. Proceedings (Baylor University Medical Center).
  134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-134>)** Bowler, Peter J. (2009). _Evolution: The History of an Idea_. University of California Press.
  135. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-135>)** Bladon, Christine (2020). _Seeing the Invisible: Microscopes and Microscopists from the 17th to the 19th Century_. Oxford University Press.
  136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-136>)** Anderson, Margaret J. (2009). _Carl Linnaeus: Father of Classification_. Enslow Publishers.
  137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-137>)** Cutler, Alan (2003). _The Seashell on the Mountaintop_. Dutton. pp. 134–136.
  138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-138>)** Heilbron, John L. (1979). _Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics_. University of California Press.
  139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-139>)** Robins, Robert H. (1997). _A Short History of Linguistics_. Longman. pp. 160–163.
  140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-140>)** Heilbroner, Robert (1999). _The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers_. Simon & Schuster.
  141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-141>)** Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0198206088.
  142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-142>)** Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0521546812.
  143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-143>)** Gaukroger, Stephen. Descartes: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0198239949.
  144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-144>)** Jacob, Margaret C. The Scientific Revolution: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. ISBN 978-0312539481.
  145. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-145>)** ["Kant, Immanuel: Metaphysics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm#H1>). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20130627205028/http:/www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/#H1>) from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
  146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-146>)** Gardner, Sebastian. Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 978-0415119099.
  147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-147>)** Barry, John M. Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul. Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670023059.
  148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-148>)** Proust, Jacques. Diderot et l'Encyclopédie. A. Colin, 1962.
  149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-149>)** Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 978-0333964500.
  150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-150>)** Berlin, Isaiah. Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas. Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0691090269.
  151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-151>)** [Paul Oskar Kristeller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Paul_Oskar_Kristeller> "Paul Oskar Kristeller"), _Humanism_ , pp. 113–114, in Charles B. Schmitt, [Quentin Skinner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Quentin_Skinner> "Quentin Skinner") (editors), _The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy_ (1990).
  152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-152>)** She was the author of _[Miroir de l'âme pécheresse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Miroir_de_l%27%C3%A2me_p%C3%A9cheresse> "Miroir de l'âme pécheresse")_ (_The Mirror of a Sinful Soul_), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, [_King's sister—queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.brill.nl/print.aspx?partid=210&pid=18212>) [_[dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot> "Wikipedia:Link rot")_] (_Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188_ ; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-90-04-17760-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4> "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4") (v. 1), [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-9004177611](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004177611> "Special:BookSources/978-9004177611") (v. 2)
  153. ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-1>) [_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-2>) [_**d**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-3>) [_**e**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-4>) [_**f**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-5>) [_**g**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-6>) [_**h**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-7>) [_**i**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-8>) [_**j**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-9>) [_**k**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-10>) [_**l**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:4_153-11>) Bengsston, Tommy (2004). "12: Infant and Child Mortality". _Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900_. The MIT Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0262025515](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262025515> "Special:BookSources/978-0262025515").
  154. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:2_154-0>)** Laqueur, Thomas (2015). _The Work of the Dead: A Cultural History of Mortal Remains_. Princeton University. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0691157788](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691157788> "Special:BookSources/978-0691157788").
  155. ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:3_155-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-:3_155-1>) Ward, Richard (2015). [_Introduction to A Global History of Execution and the Criminal Corpse_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf>) (PDF). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1057/9781137577931](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137577931>) (inactive 12 July 2025). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1137577931](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137577931> "Special:BookSources/978-1137577931"). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/PMID_\(identifier\)> "PMID \(identifier\)") [27559562](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27559562>). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20201028005638/http:/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf>) (PDF) from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.`{{cite book[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Cite_book> "Template:Cite book")}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_July_2025> "Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025"))


### Works cited
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=52> "Edit section: Works cited")]
  * [Bose, Sugata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sugata_Bose> "Sugata Bose"); [Jalal, Ayesha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ayesha_Jalal> "Ayesha Jalal") (2003). [_Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose>) (2nd ed.). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [0-415-30787-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30787-2> "Special:BookSources/0-415-30787-2").


## External links
[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=53> "Edit section: External links")]
  * [Internet Modern History Sourcebook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.fordham.edu/halsall/pgc.asp?page=mod/modsbook.html>), fordham.edu
  * [Discussion of the medieval/modern transition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmhint.html>) from the introduction to the pioneering _[Cambridge Modern History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cambridge_Modern_History> "Cambridge Modern History")_ (1902–1912)
  * [Society for Renaissance Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.rensoc.org.uk/>)
  * [Early Modern Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20110925084220/http:/emc.eserver.org/>) (archived 25 September 2011)
  * [Early Modern Resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/earlymodernweb.org/>)

Preceded by[Postclassical Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Postclassical_Era> "Postclassical Era") | **[History by period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_by_period> "History by period") **about 1500–1800 CE  | Succeeded by[modern period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_period> "Modern period")  
---|---|---  
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Early_Modern_Europe> "Template:Early Modern Europe")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Early_Modern_Europe> "Template talk:Early Modern Europe")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Modern_Europe> "Special:EditPage/Template:Early Modern Europe")

[Early modern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_Europe> "Early modern Europe")  
---  
Overviews| | Eras| 
  * [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance")
    * [Outline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance> "Outline of the Renaissance")
  * [High Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/High_Renaissance> "High Renaissance")
  * Early modern period
  * [Early modern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_Europe> "Early modern Europe")
  * [Elizabethan era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Elizabethan_era> "Elizabethan era")
  * [Age of Discovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Discovery> "Age of Discovery")
  * [Baroque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baroque> "Baroque")
  * [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment> "Age of Enlightenment")
  * [Napoleonic era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleonic_era> "Napoleonic era")
  * [International relations (1648–1814)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/International_relations_\(1648%E2%80%931814\)> "International relations \(1648–1814\)")

  
---|---  
By country| 
  * [Northern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Northern_Renaissance> "Northern Renaissance")
  * [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_Renaissance> "English Renaissance")
  * [Papacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_Papacy> "Renaissance Papacy")
  * [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Renaissance> "French Renaissance")
  * [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/German_Renaissance> "German Renaissance")
  * [Low Countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries> "Renaissance in the Low Countries")

  
Events| | Political| 
  * [Fall of Constantinople](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople> "Fall of Constantinople")
  * [Decline of the Byzantine Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire> "Decline of the Byzantine Empire")
  * Technological:
  * [Printing Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Printing#Impact_of_German_movable_type_printing_press> "Printing")
  * Intellectual:
  * [Scientific Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scientific_Revolution> "Scientific Revolution")

  
---|---  
Social history| | Concepts| 
  * [Absolute monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Absolute_monarchy> "Absolute monarchy")
  * [Journalism of Early Modern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Journalism_of_Early_Modern_Europe> "Journalism of Early Modern Europe")
  * [The General Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_General_Crisis> "The General Crisis")
    * [Peasant Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Medieval_and_Early_Modern_European_Peasant_Wars> "Template:Medieval and Early Modern European Peasant Wars")

  
---|---  
Politics| | Countries| 
  * [Holy Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire> "Holy Roman Empire")
    * [Free imperial city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Free_imperial_city> "Free imperial city")
  * [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_France> "Early modern France")
  * [Germany ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period> "Germany in the early modern period")
  * [Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_Britain> "Early modern Britain")
    * [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Empire> "British Empire")
  * [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire")
  * [Portuguese Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_Empire> "Portuguese Empire")
  * [Spanish Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_Empire> "Spanish Empire")
  * [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth> "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth")
  * [Cossack Hetmanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate> "Cossack Hetmanate")
  * [Swedish Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Swedish_Empire> "Swedish Empire")
  * [Dutch Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_Republic> "Dutch Republic")
    * [Seventeen Provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seventeen_Provinces> "Seventeen Provinces")
    * [Economic history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_\(1500%E2%80%931815\)> "Economic history of the Netherlands \(1500–1815\)")
  * [Habsburg monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Habsburg_monarchy> "Habsburg monarchy")
  * [Russian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Empire> "Russian Empire")
  * [Kingdom of Bohemia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia> "Kingdom of Bohemia")
    * [Lands of the Bohemian Crown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown> "Lands of the Bohemian Crown")
  * [Protestant Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestant_Union> "Protestant Union")
  * [Grand Duchy of Tuscany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany> "Grand Duchy of Tuscany")

  
---|---  
Leaders| 
  * [Habsburg monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Habsburg_monarchy> "Habsburg monarchy")
  * England 
    * [House of Stuart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/House_of_Stuart> "House of Stuart")
    * [House of Tudor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/House_of_Tudor> "House of Tudor")
  * France 
    * [House of Bourbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/House_of_Bourbon> "House of Bourbon")
    * [Absolute monarchy in France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France> "Absolute monarchy in France")
    * [Ancien Régime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime> "Ancien Régime")
    * [Louis XIV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Louis_XIV> "Louis XIV")

  
Wars| 
  * [French Wars of Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion> "French Wars of Religion")
  * [Thirty Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War> "Thirty Years' War")
  * [Cabinet wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cabinet_wars> "Cabinet wars")
  * [Second Hundred Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War> "Second Hundred Years' War")
  * [War of the Spanish Succession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession> "War of the Spanish Succession")
  * [Seven Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seven_Years%27_War> "Seven Years' War")

  
Diplomacy| 
  * [French–Habsburg rivalry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry> "French–Habsburg rivalry")
  * [Peace of Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia> "Peace of Westphalia")
  * [Treaties of Nijmegen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen> "Treaties of Nijmegen")
  * [Diplomatic Revolution of 1756](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756> "Diplomatic Revolution of 1756")

  
Religion| | Overviews| 
  * [Christianity in the modern era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era> "Christianity in the modern era")
  * [Proto-Protestantism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-Protestantism> "Proto-Protestantism")
  * [Bohemian Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bohemian_Reformation> "Bohemian Reformation")
    * [Hussites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hussites> "Hussites")
  * [History of European Jews in the Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages> "History of European Jews in the Middle Ages")
  * [Haskalah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Haskalah> "Haskalah")
  * [Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe> "Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe")
  * [Protestant Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestant_Reformation> "Protestant Reformation")
    * [Ninety-five Theses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ninety-five_Theses> "Ninety-five Theses")
    * [Calvinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Calvinism> "Calvinism")
    * [Huguenots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Huguenots> "Huguenots")
    * [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_Reformation> "English Reformation")
    * [Lutheranism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lutheranism> "Lutheranism")
    * [Scottish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scottish_Reformation> "Scottish Reformation")
    * [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland> "Reformation in Switzerland")
    * [Radical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Radical_Reformation> "Radical Reformation")
  * [Counter-Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Counter-Reformation> "Counter-Reformation")
  * [European wars of religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_wars_of_religion> "European wars of religion")

  
---|---  
Academic fields| | Philosophy| 
  * Philosophy:
  * [Renaissance philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_philosophy> "Renaissance philosophy")
  * [Renaissance humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_humanism> "Renaissance humanism")
    * [Northern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe> "Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe")
  * [Greek scholars in the Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance> "Greek scholars in the Renaissance")

  
---|---  
Science| 
  * [Science in the Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance> "Science in the Renaissance")

  
Works| 
  * _[Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man> "Oration on the Dignity of Man")_
  * _Authors_ :
  * [Giovanni Pico della Mirandola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola> "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola")
  * [Matteo Palmieri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Matteo_Palmieri> "Matteo Palmieri")
  * [Leonardo da Vinci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci> "Leonardo da Vinci")

  
Arts| | General| 
  * [Renaissance art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance_art> "Renaissance art")
  * Painting: 
    * [Italian painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting> "Italian Renaissance painting")
    * [Florentine painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Florentine_painting> "Florentine painting")
    * [Venetian painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Venetian_painting> "Venetian painting")
    * [Dutch and Flemish painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting> "Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting")
    * [Early Netherlandish painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting> "Early Netherlandish painting")

  
---|---  
End of period| 
  * [Great Divergence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Great_Divergence> "Great Divergence")
  * [Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Industrial_Revolution> "Industrial Revolution")
  * [Age of Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Revolution> "Age of Revolution")
    * [French Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolution> "French Revolution")
  * [Coalition Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars> "French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars")
    * [Revolutionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars> "French Revolutionary Wars")
    * [Napoleonic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Napoleonic_Wars> "Napoleonic Wars")
  * [Nationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe> "Rise of nationalism in Europe")
  * [Revolutions of 1848](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Revolutions_of_1848> "Revolutions of 1848")

  
See also| | Europe| 
  * [Art of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Art_of_Europe> "Art of Europe")
  * [Genetic history of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe> "Genetic history of Europe")
  * [History of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_European_Union> "History of the European Union")
  * [Maritime history of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe> "Maritime history of Europe")
  * [Military history of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Military_history_of_Europe> "Military history of Europe")

  
---|---  
World| 
  * [History of Western civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Western_civilization> "History of Western civilization")
  * [History of Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Christianity> "History of Christianity")
  * [History of the Mediterranean region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region> "History of the Mediterranean region")

  
[Human history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Human_history> "Human history") • [History of philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_philosophy> "History of philosophy") • [History of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Europe> "History of Europe")  
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Western_world> "Template:Western world")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Western_world> "Template talk:Western world")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world> "Special:EditPage/Template:Western world")

[Western world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_world> "Western world") and [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_culture> "Western culture")  
---  
Foundations| 
  * [Cradle of civilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cradle_of_civilization> "Cradle of civilization")
  * [Old World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_World> "Old World")
  * [Greco-Roman world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Greco-Roman_world> "Greco-Roman world")
    * [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Greece> "Ancient Greece")
    * [Hellenistic Kingdoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hellenistic_period> "Hellenistic period")
    * [Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Rome> "Ancient Rome")
    * [Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Empire> "Roman Empire")
      * [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Roman_Empire> "Western Roman Empire")
      * [Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Byzantine_Empire> "Byzantine Empire")
  * [Roman legacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire> "Legacy of the Roman Empire")
  * [Romanization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Romanization_\(cultural\)> "Romanization \(cultural\)")
  * [Romano-Germanic culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture> "Romano-Germanic culture")
    * [Gallo-Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture> "Gallo-Roman culture")
  * [Anglo-American world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglosphere> "Anglosphere")
  * [Eurosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eurosphere> "Eurosphere")
  * [Christendom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christendom> "Christendom")

  
[History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Western_civilization> "History of Western civilization")| 
  * [European Bronze Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe> "Bronze Age Europe")
  * [Classical antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_antiquity> "Classical antiquity")
    * [Late antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_antiquity> "Late antiquity")
  * [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Ages> "Middle Ages")
    * [early](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_Middle_Ages> "Early Middle Ages")
    * [high](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/High_Middle_Ages> "High Middle Ages")
    * [late](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Late_Middle_Ages> "Late Middle Ages")
  * [Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Renaissance> "Renaissance")
  * [Modern period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_period> "Modern period")
    * Early modern period
    * [Age of Discovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Discovery> "Age of Discovery")
    * [Reformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Reformation> "Reformation")
    * [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment> "Age of Enlightenment")
    * [Scientific Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scientific_Revolution> "Scientific Revolution")
    * [Age of Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Age_of_Revolution> "Age of Revolution")
    * [Romanticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Romanticism> "Romanticism")
    * [Abolitionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Abolitionism> "Abolitionism")
    * [Emancipation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Emancipation> "Emancipation")
    * [Capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Capitalism> "Capitalism")
    * [Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Industrial_Revolution> "Industrial Revolution")
    * [Great Divergence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Great_Divergence> "Great Divergence")
    * [Modernism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modernism> "Modernism")
    * [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/World_War_I> "World War I")
    * [Interwar period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Interwar_period> "Interwar period")
    * [Universal suffrage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Universal_suffrage> "Universal suffrage")
    * [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/World_War_II> "World War II")
    * [Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cold_War> "Cold War")
  * [Post–Cold War era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era> "Post–Cold War era")
    * [Information age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Information_Age> "Information Age")
    * [War on drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/War_on_drugs> "War on drugs")
    * [Post-9/11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Post-9/11> "Post-9/11")

  
[Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_culture> "Western culture")| 
  * [Alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alphabet> "Alphabet")
    * [Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Greek_alphabet> "Greek alphabet")
    * [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Latin_script> "Latin script")
    * [Cyrillic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cyrillic_script> "Cyrillic script")
  * [Architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Architecture> "Architecture")
  * [Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Art_of_Europe> "Art of Europe")
    * [Periods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history> "Periods in Western art history")
  * [Calendar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gregorian_calendar> "Gregorian calendar")
  * [Cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_cuisine> "European cuisine")
    * [Diet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_pattern_diet> "Western pattern diet")
  * [Classical tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_tradition> "Classical tradition")
    * [Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classics> "Classics")
  * [Clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_dress_codes> "Western dress codes")
    * [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Western_fashion> "History of Western fashion")
  * [Dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_dance_\(Europe_and_North_America\)> "Western dance \(Europe and North America\)")
  * [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_education> "Western education")
  * [Esotericism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_esotericism> "Western esotericism")
    * [Astrology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_astrology> "Western astrology")
  * [Folklore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_folklore> "European folklore")
  * [Immigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world> "Immigration to the Western world")
  * [Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_law> "Western law")
  * [Languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Languages_of_Europe> "Languages of Europe")
    * [Eurolinguistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eurolinguistics> "Eurolinguistics")
    * [Standard Average European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Standard_Average_European> "Standard Average European")
  * [Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_literature> "Western literature")
    * [Canon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_canon> "Western canon")
  * [Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_media> "Western media")
    * [Internet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Internet> "Internet")
  * [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Music> "Music")
    * [Chant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chant> "Chant")
    * [Classical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Classical_music> "Classical music")
    * [Folk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions> "List of European folk music traditions")
    * [Instruments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_European_medieval_musical_instruments> "List of European medieval musical instruments")
  * [Mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_mythology> "European mythology")
  * [Painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_painting> "Western painting")
    * [contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/20th-century_Western_painting> "20th-century Western painting")
  * [Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_philosophy> "Western philosophy")
    * [Science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Philosophy_of_science> "Philosophy of science")
    * [Values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Values_\(Western_philosophy\)> "Values \(Western philosophy\)")
  * [Physical culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_physical_culture> "Western physical culture")
    * [Sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_sports> "Western sports")
  * [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_religions> "Western religions")
    * [East–West Schism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism> "East–West Schism")
    * [Western Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Christianity> "Western Christianity")
    * [Decline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world> "Decline of Christianity in the Western world")
    * [Secularism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Secularism> "Secularism")

  
[Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_philosophy> "Western philosophy")| 
  * [Ancient Greek philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy> "Ancient Greek philosophy")
  * [Hellenistic philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy> "Hellenistic philosophy")
  * [Ancient Roman philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy> "Ancient Roman philosophy")
  * [Christian ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christian_ethics> "Christian ethics")
  * [Judeo-Christian ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics> "Judeo-Christian ethics")
  * [Christian philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christian_philosophy> "Christian philosophy")
  * [Scholasticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scholasticism> "Scholasticism")
  * [Rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rationalism> "Rationalism")
  * [Empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empiricism> "Empiricism")
  * [Existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Existentialism> "Existentialism")
    * [Christian existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christian_existentialism> "Christian existentialism")
  * [Humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humanism> "Humanism")
    * [Christian humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christian_humanism> "Christian humanism")
    * [Secular humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Secular_humanism> "Secular humanism")
  * [Liberalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Liberalism> "Liberalism")
  * [Conservatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Conservatism> "Conservatism")
  * [Capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Capitalism> "Capitalism")
  * [Progressivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Progressivism> "Progressivism")
  * [Continental philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Continental_philosophy> "Continental philosophy")
  * [Analytic philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Analytic_philosophy> "Analytic philosophy")
  * [Post-structuralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Post-structuralism> "Post-structuralism")
  * [Tolerance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Toleration> "Toleration")
    * [Paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance> "Paradox of tolerance")
  * [Relativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Relativism> "Relativism")
    * _[Peritrope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Peritrope> "Peritrope")_
  * [Atlanticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atlanticism> "Atlanticism")
  * [Sovereigntism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sovereigntism> "Sovereigntism")
  * [Individualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Individualism> "Individualism")
  * [Values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_values> "Western values")
    * [European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_values> "European values")

  
[Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_religions> "Western religions")| 
  * [Abrahamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Abrahamic_religions> "Abrahamic religions")
    * [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christianity> "Christianity")
      * [Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Christian_culture> "Christian culture")
        * [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Christianity> "Western Christianity")/[Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Christianity> "Eastern Christianity")
      * [Catholicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Catholic_Church> "Catholic Church")
        * [Latin Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Latin_Church> "Latin Church")
      * [Eastern Orthodoxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy> "Eastern Orthodoxy")
        * [Greek Orthodox Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church> "Greek Orthodox Church")
      * [Protestantism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Protestantism> "Protestantism")
  * [Paganism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Paganism> "Paganism")
    * [Baltic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baltic_mythology> "Baltic mythology")
    * [Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion> "Ancient Celtic religion")
    * [Finnish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Finnish_paganism> "Finnish paganism")
    * [Germanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Germanic_paganism> "Germanic paganism")
      * [Anglo-Saxon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism> "Anglo-Saxon paganism")
      * [Frankish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Frankish_mythology> "Frankish mythology")
      * [Gothic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gothic_paganism> "Gothic paganism")
      * [Old Norse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_Norse_religion> "Old Norse religion")
    * [Hellenistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hellenistic_religion> "Hellenistic religion")
    * [Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome> "Religion in ancient Rome")
    * [Slavic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Slavic_paganism> "Slavic paganism")
    * [Neo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_paganism> "Modern paganism")
  * [Agnosticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agnosticism> "Agnosticism")
  * [Atheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atheism> "Atheism")

  
[Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_law> "Western law")| 
  * [Natural law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Natural_law> "Natural law")
  * [Rule of law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rule_of_law> "Rule of law")
    * [Equality before the law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Equality_before_the_law> "Equality before the law")
  * [Constitutionalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Constitutionalism> "Constitutionalism")
  * [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Human_rights> "Human rights")
    * [Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Right_to_life> "Right to life")
    * [Thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Freedom_of_thought> "Freedom of thought")
    * [Speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Freedom_of_speech> "Freedom of speech")
    * [Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Freedom_of_the_press> "Freedom of the press")
    * [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Freedom_of_religion> "Freedom of religion")
    * [Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Right_to_property> "Right to property")
  * [Democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Democracy> "Democracy")
  * [Liberal international order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Liberal_international_order> "Liberal international order")

  
Contemporaryintegration| 
  * [ABCANZ Armies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ABCANZ_Armies> "ABCANZ Armies")
  * [AER](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions> "Assembly of European Regions")
  * [Anglo-Portuguese Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance> "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance")
  * [ANZUK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ANZUK> "ANZUK")
  * [ANZUS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ANZUS> "ANZUS")
  * [Arctic Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Arctic_Council> "Arctic Council")
  * [AUKUS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/AUKUS> "AUKUS")
  * [AUSCANNZUKUS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS> "AUSCANNZUKUS")
  * [Baltic Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baltic_Assembly> "Baltic Assembly")
  * [Benelux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Benelux> "Benelux")
  * [British–Irish Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council> "British–Irish Council")
  * [BSEC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation> "Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation")
  * [Bucharest Nine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bucharest_Nine> "Bucharest Nine")
  * [CANZUK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/CANZUK> "CANZUK")
  * [CBSS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States> "Council of the Baltic Sea States")
  * [Celtic League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Celtic_League> "Celtic League")
  * [CEFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement> "Central European Free Trade Agreement")
  * [Council of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Council_of_Europe> "Council of Europe")
  * [Craiova Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Craiova_Group> "Craiova Group")
  * [Eastern European Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_European_Group> "Eastern European Group")
  * [Eastern Partnership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Partnership> "Eastern Partnership")
  * [EEA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Economic_Area> "European Economic Area")
  * [EFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association> "European Free Trade Association")
  * [EPC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Political_Community> "European Political Community")
  * [ESA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Space_Agency> "European Space Agency")
  * [EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Union> "European Union")
  * [EU Customs Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union> "European Union Customs Union")
  * [Eurozone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eurozone> "Eurozone")
  * [EU–UK TCA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement> "EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement")
  * [Five Eyes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Five_Eyes> "Five Eyes")
  * [G7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/G7> "G7")
  * [Lancaster House Treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties> "Lancaster House Treaties")
  * [Latin American and Caribbean Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Latin_American_and_Caribbean_Group> "Latin American and Caribbean Group")
  * [Latin Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Latin_Union> "Latin Union")
  * [Lublin Triangle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lublin_Triangle> "Lublin Triangle")
  * [NAFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement> "North American Free Trade Agreement")
  * [NATO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/NATO> "NATO")
  * [NORAD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/NORAD> "NORAD")
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