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Toggle the table of contents
## Contents
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  * [ (Top) ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#>)
  * [ 1 Name ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Name>)
  * [ 2 History ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#History>) Toggle History subsection
    * [ 2.1 Babur and Humayun (1526–1556) ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Babur_and_Humayun_\(1526–1556\)>)
    * [ 2.2 Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707) ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Akbar_to_Aurangzeb_\(1556–1707\)>)
    * [ 2.3 Decline (1707–1857) ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Decline_\(1707–1857\)>)
    * [ 2.4 Causes of decline ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Causes_of_decline>)
  * [ 3 Administration and state ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Administration_and_state>) Toggle Administration and state subsection
    * [ 3.1 Administrative divisions ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Administrative_divisions>)
    * [ 3.2 Capitals ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Capitals>)
    * [ 3.3 Law ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Law>)
      * [ 3.3.1 Legal ideology ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Legal_ideology>)
      * [ 3.3.2 Courts of law ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Courts_of_law>)
  * [ 4 Economy ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Economy>) Toggle Economy subsection
    * [ 4.1 Coinage ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Coinage>)
    * [ 4.2 Labour ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Labour>)
    * [ 4.3 Agriculture ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Agriculture>)
    * [ 4.4 Industrial manufacturing ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Industrial_manufacturing>)
      * [ 4.4.1 Textile industry ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Textile_industry>)
    * [ 4.5 Bengal Subah ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Bengal_Subah>)
      * [ 4.5.1 Shipbuilding industry ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Shipbuilding_industry>)
  * [ 5 Demographics ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Demographics>) Toggle Demographics subsection
    * [ 5.1 Population ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Population>)
    * [ 5.2 Urbanisation ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Urbanisation>)
  * [ 6 Culture ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Culture>) Toggle Culture subsection
    * [ 6.1 Customs ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Customs>)
    * [ 6.2 Architecture ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Architecture>)
    * [ 6.3 Art and literature ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Art_and_literature>)
    * [ 6.4 Language ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Language>)
  * [ 7 Military ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Military>) Toggle Military subsection
    * [ 7.1 Gunpowder warfare ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Gunpowder_warfare>)
    * [ 7.2 Rocketry and explosives ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Rocketry_and_explosives>)
  * [ 8 Science ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Science>) Toggle Science subsection
    * [ 8.1 Astronomy ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Astronomy>)
    * [ 8.2 Metallurgy ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Metallurgy>)
  * [ 9 List of emperors ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#List_of_emperors>)
  * [ 10 See also ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#See_also>)
  * [ 11 References ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#References>) Toggle References subsection
    * [ 11.1 Footnotes ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Footnotes>)
    * [ 11.2 Citations ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Citations>)
    * [ 11.3 Sources ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Sources>)
  * [ 12 Further reading ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Further_reading>) Toggle Further reading subsection
    * [ 12.1 Culture ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Culture_2>)
    * [ 12.2 Society and economy ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Society_and_economy>)
    * [ 12.3 Primary sources ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Primary_sources>)
    * [ 12.4 Older histories ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#Older_histories>)
  * [ 13 External links ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#External_links>)


# Mughal Empire
116 languages
  * [Acèh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keurajeu%C3%ABn_Mughal> "Keurajeuën Mughal – Acehnese")
  * [Afrikaans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogolryk> "Mogolryk – Afrikaans")
  * [अंगिका](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF> "मुग़ल साम्राज्य – Angika")
  * [العربية](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF> "سلطنة مغول الهند – Arabic")
  * [অসমীয়া](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF> "মোগল সাম্ৰাজ্য – Assamese")
  * [Asturianu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_mogol> "Imperiu mogol – Asturian")
  * [Azərbaycanca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Mo%C4%9Fol_imperiyas%C4%B1> "Böyük Moğol imperiyası – Azerbaijani")
  * [تۆرکجه](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88> "بابورلولر ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani")
  * [বাংলা](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%98%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF> "মুঘল সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla")
  * [閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogul_T%C3%A8-kok> "Mogul Tè-kok – Minnan")
  * [Башҡортса](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B9%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B> "Бөйөк Моголдар империяһы – Bashkir")
  * [Беларуская](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E> "Імперыя Вялікіх Маголаў – Belarusian")
  * [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E> "Імпэрыя Вялікіх Маголаў – Belarusian \(Taraškievica orthography\)")
  * [भोजपुरी](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C> "मुगल राज – Bhojpuri")
  * [Bikol Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Mughal> "Imperyong Mughal – Central Bikol")
  * [Български](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F> "Моголска империя – Bulgarian")
  * [Bosanski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulsko_Carstvo> "Mogulsko Carstvo – Bosnian")
  * [Brezhoneg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_Voghol> "Impalaeriezh Voghol – Breton")
  * [Català](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Mogol> "Imperi Mogol – Catalan")
  * [Čeština](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughalsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e> "Mughalská říše – Czech")
  * [Cymraeg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymerodraeth_y_Mughal> "Ymerodraeth y Mughal – Welsh")
  * [Dansk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulriget> "Mogulriget – Danish")
  * [Deutsch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulreich> "Mogulreich – German")
  * [Eesti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suurmogulite_riik> "Suurmogulite riik – Estonian")
  * [Ελληνικά](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82> "Μογγολική αυτοκρατορία της Ινδίας – Greek")
  * [Español](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_mogol> "Imperio mogol – Spanish")
  * [Esperanto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogola_Imperio> "Mogola Imperio – Esperanto")
  * [Euskara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogol_Inperioa> "Mogol Inperioa – Basque")
  * [فارسی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C> "امپراتوری گورکانی – Persian")
  * [Français](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_moghol> "Empire moghol – French")
  * [Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireacht_na_M%C3%B3gal> "Impireacht na Mógal – Irish")
  * [Galego](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Mogol> "Imperio Mogol – Galician")
  * [ગુજરાતી](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%98%E0%AA%B2_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF> "મુઘલ સામ્રાજ્ય – Gujarati")
  * [客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogul_Ti-koet> "Mogul Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese")
  * [한국어](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B4%EA%B5%B4_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD> "무굴 제국 – Korean")
  * [Hausa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire – Hausa")
  * [Հայերեն](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6> "Մեծ մողոլների կայսրություն – Armenian")
  * [हिन्दी](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF> "मुग़ल साम्राज्य – Hindi")
  * [Hrvatski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulsko_Carstvo> "Mogulsko Carstvo – Croatian")
  * [Ido](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Mughal> "Imperio Mughal – Ido")
  * [Bahasa Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Mughal> "Kekaisaran Mughal – Indonesian")
  * [Íslenska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3g%C3%BAlveldi%C3%B0> "Mógúlveldið – Icelandic")
  * [Italiano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moghul> "Moghul – Italian")
  * [עברית](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA> "האימפריה המוגולית – Hebrew")
  * [Jawa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Mughal> "Kakaisaran Mughal – Javanese")
  * [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%98%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF> "ಮೊಘಲ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ – Kannada")
  * [ქართული](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90> "დიდ მოგოლთა იმპერია – Georgian")
  * [Қазақша](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D2%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B> "Ұлы Моғолдар патшалығы – Kazakh")
  * [Kurdî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Moxol_a_Hindistan%C3%AA> "Împeratoriya Moxol a Hindistanê – Kurdish")
  * [Кыргызча](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B> "Моголдор империясы – Kyrgyz")
  * [Latina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Mogolicum> "Imperium Mogolicum – Latin")
  * [Latviešu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulu_imp%C4%93rija> "Mogulu impērija – Latvian")
  * [Lietuvių](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogol%C5%B3_imperija> "Mogolų imperija – Lithuanian")
  * [Limburgs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughalriek> "Mughalriek – Limburgish")
  * [Magyar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogul_Birodalom> "Mogul Birodalom – Hungarian")
  * [Македонски](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE> "Могулско Царство – Macedonian")
  * [Malagasy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_M%C3%B4g%C3%B4ly> "Empira Môgôly – Malagasy")
  * [മലയാളം](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82> "മുഗൾ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam")
  * [मराठी](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF> "मुघल साम्राज्य – Marathi")
  * [მარგალური](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90> "დიდი მოგოლეფიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian")
  * [مصرى](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84> "امبراطورية المغول – Egyptian Arabic")
  * [مازِرونی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C> "گورکانی امپراتوری – Mazanderani")
  * [Bahasa Melayu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Mughal> "Empayar Mughal – Malay")
  * [ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%98%EA%AF%9C_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9B_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%86%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%8E> "ꯃꯨꯘꯜ ꯂꯩꯄꯥꯛ ꯂꯩꯆꯥꯎ – Manipuri")
  * [Монгол](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81> "Их Могол Улс – Mongolian")
  * [Nederlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogolrijk> "Mogolrijk – Dutch")
  * [नेपाली](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF> "मुगल साम्राज्य – Nepali")
  * [नेपाल भाषा](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF> "मुगल साम्राज्य – Newari")
  * [日本語](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A0%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AB%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD> "ムガル帝国 – Japanese")
  * [Norsk bokmål](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulriket> "Mogulriket – Norwegian Bokmål")
  * [Norsk nynorsk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulriket> "Mogulriket – Norwegian Nynorsk")
  * [Occitan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Mog%C3%B2l> "Empèri Mogòl – Occitan")
  * [ଓଡ଼ିଆ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%B2_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F> "ମୋଗଲ ସାମ୍ରାଜ୍ୟ – Odia")
  * [Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boburiylar_davlati> "Boburiylar davlati – Uzbek")
  * [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%A4> "ਮੁਗ਼ਲ ਸਲਤਨਤ – Punjabi")
  * [پنجابی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA> "مغلیا سلطنت – Western Punjabi")
  * [پښتو](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A> "د مغولو واکمني – Pashto")
  * [Polski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C5%84stwo_Wielkich_Mogo%C5%82%C3%B3w> "Państwo Wielkich Mogołów – Polish")
  * [Português](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Mogol> "Império Mogol – Portuguese")
  * [Qırımtatarca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baburiyler_devleti> "Baburiyler devleti – Crimean Tatar")
  * [Română](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Mogul> "Imperiul Mogul – Romanian")
  * [Русский](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2> "Империя Великих Моголов – Russian")
  * [संस्कृतम्](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D> "मोघलसाम्राज्‍यम् – Sanskrit")
  * [ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9E_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD> "ᱢᱩᱜᱚᱞ ᱥᱟᱢᱨᱟᱡᱽ – Santali")
  * [سرائیکی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81> "سلطنت مغلیہ – Saraiki")
  * [Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire – Scots")
  * [Shqip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Mogule> "Perandoria Mogule – Albanian")
  * [Simple English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire> "Mughal Empire – Simple English")
  * [سنڌي](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA> "مغل سلطنت – Sindhi")
  * [Slovenčina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughali> "Mughali – Slovak")
  * [Slovenščina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulsko_cesarstvo> "Mogulsko cesarstvo – Slovenian")
  * [کوردی](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%BA%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF> "ئیمپراتۆریەتیی مەغۆلی ھیند – Central Kurdish")
  * [Српски / srpski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE> "Могулско царство – Serbian")
  * [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulsko_Carstvo> "Mogulsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian")
  * [Sunda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Mughal> "Kakaisaran Mughal – Sundanese")
  * [Suomi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suurmogulien_valtakunta> "Suurmogulien valtakunta – Finnish")
  * [Svenska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulriket> "Mogulriket – Swedish")
  * [Tagalog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Mughal> "Imperyong Mughal – Tagalog")
  * [தமிழ்](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81> "முகலாயப் பேரரசு – Tamil")
  * [Taqbaylit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasultant_n_Mu%C9%A3ul_n_Lhend> "Tasultant n Muɣul n Lhend – Kabyle")
  * [Татарча / tatarça](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6yek_Mogollar_%C4%B0mperi%C3%A4se> "Böyek Mogollar İmperiäse – Tatar")
  * [తెలుగు](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%98%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82> "మొఘల్ సామ్రాజ్యం – Telugu")
  * [ไทย](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A5> "จักรวรรดิโมกุล – Thai")
  * [Тоҷикӣ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D2%93%D1%83%D0%BB> "Империяи Муғул – Tajik")
  * [ತುಳು](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%98%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D> "ಮೊಘಲೆರ್ – Tulu")
  * [Türkçe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab%C3%BCrl%C3%BCler> "Babürlüler – Turkish")
  * [Türkmençe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%C3%BDik_Mogollar_imperi%C3%BDasy> "Beýik Mogollar imperiýasy – Turkmen")
  * [Українська](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2> "Імперія Великих Моголів – Ukrainian")
  * [اردو](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA> "مغلیہ سلطنت – Urdu")
  * [Tiếng Việt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Mogul> "Đế quốc Mogul – Vietnamese")
  * [Võro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogulid%C3%B5_impeerium> "Mogulidõ impeerium – Võro")
  * [Winaray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperyo_Mughal> "Emperyo Mughal – Waray")
  * [吴语](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8E%AB%E5%8D%A7%E5%84%BF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD> "莫卧儿帝国 – Wu")
  * [ייִדיש](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2> "מאגול אימפעריע – Yiddish")
  * [粵語](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%85%80%E5%85%92%E6%B1%97%E5%9C%8B> "蒙兀兒汗國 – Cantonese")
  * [中文](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8E%AB%E5%8D%A7%E5%84%BF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD> "莫卧儿帝国 – Chinese")


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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
1526–1857 empire in South Asia
Not to be confused with the [Mongol Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongol_Empire> "Mongol Empire") or [Moghulistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Moghulistan> "Moghulistan"). For other uses, see [Mughal (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_\(disambiguation\)> "Mughal \(disambiguation\)").
Mughal Empire  
---  
1526–1857  
[![Mughal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/51/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg/250px-Joppen1907India1700a.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Joppen1907India1700a.jpg> "The empire at its greatest extent c. 1700, under Aurangzeb")The empire at its greatest extent c. 1700, under [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb")  
Status| [Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire> "Empire")  
Capital| 
  * [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra") (1526–1530; 1560–1571; 1598–1648)
  * [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi> "Delhi") (1530–1540; 1639–1857)
  * [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri") (1571–1585)
  * [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore") (1586–1598)[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994294-1>)

  
Official languages| [Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_language> "Persian language")  
Common languages|  _See[Languages of South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia> "Languages of South Asia")_  
[Ethnic groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ethnic_group> "Ethnic group") | [Mongols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongols> "Mongols") [Turks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turkic_peoples> "Turkic peoples") [Persians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persians> "Persians") [Afghans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghans> "Afghans") [South Asian Ethnicities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/South_Asian_Ethnicities> "South Asian Ethnicities")  
Religion | 
State religion
    [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islam> "Islam")[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-2>) (minority)
Others
    [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hinduism> "Hinduism") (majority)  
Government| [Monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Monarchy> "Monarchy")  
[Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_emperors> "Mughal emperors")  
• 1526–1530 (first) | [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur")  
• 1837–1857 (last) | [Bahadur Shah II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_II> "Bahadur Shah II")  
[Vicegerent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Vakil_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Vakil of the Mughal Empire")  
• 1526–1540 (first) | [Mir Khalifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mir_Khalifa> "Mir Khalifa")  
• 1794–1818 (last) | [Daulat Rao Sindhia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Daulat_Rao_Sindhia> "Daulat Rao Sindhia")  
[Grand Vizier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_Mughal_grand_viziers> "List of Mughal grand viziers")  
• 1526–1540 (first) | [Mir Khalifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mir_Khalifa> "Mir Khalifa")  
• 1775–1797 (last) | [Asaf-ud-Daula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Asaf-ud-Daula> "Asaf-ud-Daula")  
Historical era| [Early modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern> "Early modern")  
• [First Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat> "First Battle of Panipat") | 21 April 1526  
• [Mughal Interregnum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sur_Empire> "Sur Empire") | 17 May 1540–22 June 1555  
• [Second Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Battle_of_Panipat> "Second Battle of Panipat") | 5 November 1556  
• [Mughal–Afghan Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Afghan_Wars> "Mughal–Afghan Wars") | 21 April 1526–3 April 1752  
• [Deccan wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan_wars> "Deccan wars") | 1680–1707  
• [Nader Shah's invasion of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India> "Nader Shah's invasion of India") | 1738–1740  
• [Siege of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Delhi> "Siege of Delhi") | 21 September 1857  
• [Mughal Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Emperor> "Mughal Emperor") exiled to [British Burma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Burma> "British Burma") | 7 October 1858  
Area  
1690[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-TurchinAdams2006-3>)[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Taagepera-4>)[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-OxfordArea-5>)| 4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)  
Population  
• 1595 | 125,000,000[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-6>)  
• 1700 | 158,400,000[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-borocz-7>)  
Currency| [Rupee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rupee> "Rupee"), [Taka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_taka> "History of the taka"), [dam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dam_\(Indian_coin\)> "Dam \(Indian coin\)")[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards199573–74-8>)  
|  **Preceded by** | **Succeeded by**  
---|---  
| ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png) | [Delhi Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi_Sultanate> "Delhi Sultanate")  
---|---  
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png) | [Sur Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sur_Empire> "Sur Empire")  
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png) | [Deccan sultanates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan_sultanates> "Deccan sultanates")  
| [British Raj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Raj> "British Raj") | ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png)  
---|---  
Today part of| 
  * [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/India> "India")
  * [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pakistan> "Pakistan")
  * [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bangladesh> "Bangladesh")
  * [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghanistan> "Afghanistan")

  
The **Mughal Empire** was an [early modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_period> "Early modern period") empire in [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/South_Asia> "South Asia"). At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the [Indus River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indus_River> "Indus River") Basin in the west, northern [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghanistan> "Afghanistan") in the northwest, and [Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kashmir> "Kashmir") in the north, to the [highlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Highland> "Highland") of present-day [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Assam> "Assam") and [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bangladesh> "Bangladesh") in the east, and the uplands of the [Deccan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan_Plateau> "Deccan Plateau") in [South India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/South_India> "South India").[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-12-9>)[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-10>)
The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur"), a ruler from what is today [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Uzbekistan> "Uzbekistan"), who employed aid from the neighboring [Safavid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Iran> "Safavid Iran") and [Ottoman Empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire")[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Gilbert2017-11>) to defeat the [sultan of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultan_of_Delhi> "Sultan of Delhi"), [Ibrahim Lodi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi> "Ibrahim Lodi"), in the [First Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat> "First Battle of Panipat") and to sweep down the plains of [North India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/North_India> "North India"). The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar").[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-12>) This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of the last major emperor, [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb"),[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-1-13>)[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-14>) during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the [British Raj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Raj> "British Raj") after the [Indian Rebellion of 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857> "Indian Rebellion of 1857"). 
Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare,[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-2-15>)[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Robb2011-16>)[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Gilbert2017-2-17>) it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather, it equalised and placated them through new administrative practices,[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115-18>)[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb201199–100-19>) and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardised rule.[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–-20>) The basis of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-3-21>)[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-1-22>) These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-4-23>) were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–-20>) and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-3-24>)
The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-4-25>) The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court.[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-5-26>) There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite,[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-6-27>) resulting in greater patronage of [painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_painting> "Mughal painting"), literary forms, textiles, and [architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture"), especially during the reign of [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan").[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-7-28>) Among the Mughal [UNESCO World Heritage Sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites> "UNESCO World Heritage Sites") in South Asia are: [Agra Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Fort> "Agra Fort"), [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri"), [Red Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Red_Fort> "Red Fort"), [Humayun's Tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun%27s_Tomb> "Humayun's Tomb"), [Lahore Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore_Fort> "Lahore Fort"), [Shalamar Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shalamar_Gardens,_Lahore> "Shalamar Gardens, Lahore"), and the [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal"), which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Centre-29>)
## Name
The closest to an official name for the empire was _[Hindustan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustan> "Hindustan")_ , which was documented in the [Ain-i-Akbari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ain-i-Akbari> "Ain-i-Akbari").[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Vanina-30>) Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" (_Wilāyat-i-Hindustān_),[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-31>) "country of Hind" (_Bilād-i-Hind_), "Sultanate of Al-Hind" (_Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah_) as observed in the epitaph of Emperor [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb")[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-32>) or endonymous identification from emperor [Bahadur Shah Zafar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar> "Bahadur Shah Zafar") as "Land of Hind" (_Hindostān_) in [Hindustani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustani_language> "Hindustani language").[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-33>)[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-34>) Contemporary Chinese chronicles referred to the empire as _Hindustan_ (_Héndūsītǎn_).[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-35>) In the west, the term "[Mughal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_emperors> "Mughal emperors")" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Fontana-36>)
The Mughal designation for their dynasty was _Gurkani_ (_Gūrkāniyān_), a reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror [Timur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timur> "Timur") who took the title _Gūrkān_ 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a [Chinggisid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinggisid> "Chinggisid") princess.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Thackston2-37>) The word _Mughal_ (also spelled _Mogul_[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-persianatemogul-38>) or _Moghul_ in English) is the Indo-Persian form of [_Mongol_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongols> "Mongols"). The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks and not Mongols.[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Hodgson-39>)[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Canfield-40>) The term _Mughal_ was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate.[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Hodgson-39>) The term remains disputed by [Indologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indologists> "Indologists").[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-RA-41>) In [Marshall Hodgson's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Marshall_Hodgson> "Marshall Hodgson") view, the dynasty should be called _Timurid_ /_Timuri_ or _Indo-Timurid_.[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Hodgson-39>)
## History
See also: [Mughal dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_dynasty> "Mughal dynasty")
### Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)
Main articles: [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur") and [Humayun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun> "Humayun")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Joppen_map-India_in_1525_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg/250px-Joppen_map-India_in_1525_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Joppen_map-India_in_1525_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg>)India in 1525 just before the onset of Mughal rule
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the [Persianised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition> "Turco-Persian tradition") [Turco-Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition> "Turco-Mongol tradition") conqueror [Timur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timur> "Timur") (the founder of the [Timurid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_Empire> "Timurid Empire")) on his father's side, and from [Genghis Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Genghis_Khan> "Genghis Khan") on his mother's side.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Paternally, Babur belonged to the [Turkicised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turkification> "Turkification") [Barlas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barlas> "Barlas") tribe of [Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongol> "Mongol") origin.[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-43>) Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions.[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-44>) He established himself in [Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kabul> "Kabul") and then pushed steadily southward into India from [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghanistan> "Afghanistan") through the [Khyber Pass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khyber_Pass> "Khyber Pass").[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Babur's forces defeated [Ibrahim Lodi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi> "Ibrahim Lodi"), [Sultan of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi_Sultanate> "Delhi Sultanate"), in the [First Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat> "First Battle of Panipat") in 1526. Through his use of firearms and cannons, he was able to shatter Ibrahim's armies despite being at a numerical disadvantage,[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards19958-45>)[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006116-46>) expanding his dominion up to the mid [Indo-Gangetic Plain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain> "Indo-Gangetic Plain").[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006117-47>) After the battle, the centre of Mughal power shifted to [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra").[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards19958-45>) In the decisive [Battle of Khanwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Khanwa> "Battle of Khanwa"), fought near Agra a year later, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the combined [Rajput](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rajput> "Rajput") armies of [Rana Sanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rana_Sanga> "Rana Sanga") of [Mewar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Mewar> "Kingdom of Mewar"), with his native cavalry employing traditional flanking tactics.[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards19958-45>)[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006116-46>)
The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-48>) The instability of the empire became evident under his son, [Humayun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun> "Humayun") (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by the rebellious [Sher Shah Suri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri> "Sher Shah Suri") (reigned 1540–1545).[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the [Safavid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_dynasty> "Safavid dynasty") and Mughal courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197459,_65-49>) Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards199512-50>)
### Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)
Main articles: [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar"), [Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir"), [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan"), and [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg/250px-Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Jesuits_at_Akbar%27s_court.jpg>)[Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar") holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the [Ibadat Khana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ibadat_Khana> "Ibadat Khana") in Fatehpur Sikri.
[Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar") (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-51>) in the [Umarkot Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Umarkot_Fort> "Umarkot Fort"),[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-52>) to Humayun and his wife [Hamida Banu Begum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hamida_Banu_Begum> "Hamida Banu Begum"), a [Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_people> "Persian people") princess.[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-53>) Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, [Bairam Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bairam_Khan> "Bairam Khan"), who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010162-54>) Through warfare, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the [Godavari River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Godavari_River> "Godavari River").[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006128-55>) He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.[_[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed> "Wikipedia:Citation needed")_] Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, [Din-i-Ilahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Din-i-Ilahi> "Din-i-Ilahi"), with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>)
[Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir") (born Salim,[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Mohammada-56>) reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife [Mariam-uz-Zamani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mariam-uz-Zamani> "Mariam-uz-Zamani"), an Indian princess.[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-57>) Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, [Salim Chishti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Salim_Chishti> "Salim Chishti").[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-58>)[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-59>) He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques".[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more _madad-i-ma'ash_ (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had.[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-60>) In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the [Sikh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sikh> "Sikh") guru [Arjan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guru_Arjan> "Guru Arjan"), whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Sikh community.[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb201197–98-61>)[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006267-62>)[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-BBC_Sikhs-63>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0874.3.jpg/250px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0874.3.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0874.3.jpg>)Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur") to [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb"), with the Mughal ancestor [Timur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timur> "Timur") seated in the middle. On the left: [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan"), [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar") and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, [Miran Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Miran_Shah> "Miran Shah"). On the right: Aurangzeb, [Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir") and [Humayun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun> "Humayun"), and two of Timur's other offspring [Umar Shaykh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Umar_Shaikh_Mirza_I> "Umar Shaikh Mirza I") and [Muhammad Sultan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Sultan_Mirza> "Muhammad Sultan Mirza"). Created c. 1707–12.
[Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan") (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife [Jagat Gosain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jagat_Gosain> "Jagat Gosain").[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Mohammada-56>) His reign ushered in the golden age of [Mughal architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture").[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-64>) During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal"). The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Shah Jahan extended the Mughal Empire to the [Deccan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan_Plateau> "Deccan Plateau") by ending the [Ahmadnagar Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate> "Ahmadnagar Sultanate") and forcing the [Adil Shahis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_Bijapur> "Sultanate of Bijapur") and [Qutb Shahis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_Golconda> "Sultanate of Golconda") to pay tribute.[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-65>)
Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal [Dara Shikoh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dara_Shikoh> "Dara Shikoh"), became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar.[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-66>) With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, [Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb") (r. 1658–1707), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666.[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTETruschke201768-67>) Aurangzeb brought the empire to its greatest territorial extent,[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-68>) and oversaw an increase in the Islamicisation of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the _[jizya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jizya> "Jizya")_ on non-Muslims, and compiled the _[Fatawa 'Alamgiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatawa_%27Alamgiri> "Fatawa 'Alamgiri")_ , a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru [Tegh Bahadur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guru_Tegh_Bahadur> "Guru Tegh Bahadur"), leading to the militarisation of the Sikh community.[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb201198-69>)[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006267-62>)[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-BBC_Sikhs-63>) From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of a network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor.[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-70>) He led campaigns from 1682 in the Deccan,[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-EI2-71>) annexing its remaining Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda,[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995220–222-72>)[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-EI2-71>) though engaged in a [prolonged conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan_wars> "Deccan wars") in the region which had a ruinous effect on the empire.[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995252-73>) The campaigns took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence led to a severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Mughal Deccan plummeted.[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995252-73>)
Aurangzeb is considered the most controversial Mughal emperor,[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006225-74>) with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) while other historians question this, noting that he financed or patronised the building of non-Muslim institutions,[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Copland2013-75>) employed significantly more [Hindus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindus> "Hindus") in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and [Shia Muslims](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shia_Muslims> "Shia Muslims").[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTETruschke201758-76>)
### Decline (1707–1857)
Main article: [Decline of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Decline_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Decline of the Mughal Empire")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Farrukhsiyar_Procession_in_front_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Delhi.png/250px-Farrukhsiyar_Procession_in_front_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Delhi.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Farrukhsiyar_Procession_in_front_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Delhi.png>)Delhi under the puppet-emperor [Farrukhsiyar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farrukhsiyar> "Farrukhsiyar"). Effective power was held by the [Sayyid Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sayyid_Brothers> "Sayyid Brothers").
Aurangzeb's son, [Bahadur Shah I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_I> "Bahadur Shah I"), repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne",[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Berndl-42>) as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the [Indian Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islam_in_India> "Islam in India") caste known as the [Sadaat-e-Bara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barha_Dynasty> "Barha Dynasty"), whose leaders, the [Sayyid Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sayyid_Brothers> "Sayyid Brothers"), became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-77>)[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-78>)
During the reign of [Muhammad Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Shah> "Muhammad Shah") (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to [Maratha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Confederacy> "Maratha Confederacy") hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of [Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nizam-ul-Mulk,_Asaf_Jah_I> "Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I") in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India.[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-79>)[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-80>)[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-81>) The [Indian campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India> "Nader Shah's invasion of India") of [Nader Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nader_Shah> "Nader Shah"), who had previously reestablished [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afsharid_Iran> "Afsharid Iran") [suzerainty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Suzerainty> "Suzerainty") over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the [Sack of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sack_of_Delhi> "Sack of Delhi") shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance the huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms.[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-82>) But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-MSA2-83>)
Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during conflicts such as the [Carnatic wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carnatic_wars> "Carnatic wars") and [Bengal War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal_War> "Bengal War").[_[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed> "Wikipedia:Citation needed")_]
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Joppen_map-India_in_1751_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg/250px-Joppen_map-India_in_1751_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Joppen_map-India_in_1751_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg>)The remnants of the empire in 1751
The Mughal Emperor [Shah Alam II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Alam_II> "Shah Alam II") (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. [Delhi was sacked](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sack_of_Delhi_\(1757\)> "Sack of Delhi \(1757\)") by the Afghans, and when the [Third Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat> "Third Battle of Panipat") was fought between the Maratha Empire and the [Afghans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Durrani_Empire> "Durrani Empire") (led by [Ahmad Shah Durrani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani> "Ahmad Shah Durrani")) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas [recaptured Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Capture_of_Delhi_\(1771\)> "Capture of Delhi \(1771\)") from the [Rohillas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Rohilkhand> "Kingdom of Rohilkhand"), and in 1784 the Marathas officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Rathod1994-84>) a state of affairs that continued until the [Second Anglo-Maratha War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War> "Second Anglo-Maratha War"). Thereafter, the [British East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_East_India_Company> "British East India Company") became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-MSA2-83>) The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of the British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the [Indian Rebellion of 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857> "Indian Rebellion of 1857") which he nominally led, the last Mughal emperor, [Bahadur Shah Zafar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar> "Bahadur Shah Zafar"), was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 to [Rangoon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rangoon> "Rangoon"), Burma.[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Conermann2015-85>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portrait_of_Bahadur_Shah_II_as_calligrapher._Delhi%2C_ca._1850%2C_Royal_Ontario_Museum%2C_Toronto._-_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg/250px-Portrait_of_Bahadur_Shah_II_as_calligrapher._Delhi%2C_ca._1850%2C_Royal_Ontario_Museum%2C_Toronto._-_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Portrait_of_Bahadur_Shah_II_as_calligrapher._Delhi,_ca._1850,_Royal_Ontario_Museum,_Toronto._-_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg>)Portrait of [Bahadur Shah Zafar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar> "Bahadur Shah Zafar")
### Causes of decline
Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century, but, once gone, their [imperial overstretch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Imperial_overstretch> "Imperial overstretch") became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as the [British East Indies Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_East_Indies_Company> "British East Indies Company"), played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-86>)
In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive [Marathas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Empire> "Maratha Empire"), and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of [Emperor Farrukhsiyar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farrukhsiyar> "Farrukhsiyar") in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-87>)
## Administration and state
Main article: [Government of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Government_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Government of the Mughal Empire")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joppen_map-India_in_1605_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg/250px-Joppen_map-India_in_1605_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Joppen_map-India_in_1605_published_1907_by_Longmans.jpg>)India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different [subahs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subah> "Subah"), or provinces, of his administration.
The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Robinson2009-88>)[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-EI2-71>) The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a _[diwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Divan> "Divan")_ , was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled _[mir bakhshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mir_bakhshi> "Mir bakhshi")_ , who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the _[mansabdari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mansabdari> "Mansabdari")_ system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the _sadr as-sudr,_ who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by the _mir saman_. Of these ministers, the _diwan_ held the most importance, and typically acted as the _[wazir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Grand_Vizier_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire")_ (prime minister) of the empire.[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Conermann2015-85>)[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Robinson2009-88>)[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-89>)
### Administrative divisions
The empire was divided into _[Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subah> "Subah")_ (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a _[subadar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subahdar> "Subahdar")._ The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each _suba_ had its own _[bakhshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bakhshi_\(Mughal_Empire\)> "Bakhshi \(Mughal Empire\)")_ , _sadr as-sudr_ , and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the _subahdar_. _Subas_ were subdivided into administrative units known as _[sarkars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sarkar_\(administrative_division\)> "Sarkar \(administrative division\)"),_ which were further divided into groups of villages known as _[parganas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pargana> "Pargana")_. The Mughal government in the _pargana_ consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Conermann2015-85>)[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Robinson2009-88>) _Parganas_ were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal Empire.[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-90>)
Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a _sarkar_ could turn into a _subah_ , and _Parganas_ were often transferred between _sarkars_. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography—the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys.[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-91>)
### Capitals
The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra"), [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi> "Delhi"), [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore"), and [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri"). Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994294–295-92>) Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994304–305-93>) Situations where two simultaneous capitals existed happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to [Aurangabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangabad> "Aurangabad") in the [Deccan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Deccan> "Deccan").[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994294–295-92>) [Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kabul> "Kabul") was the [summer capital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Summer_capital> "Summer capital") of Mughals from 1526 to 1681.[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-94>)
The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994296_&_298-95>)
After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of [Shahjahanabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahjahanabad> "Shahjahanabad") (Old Delhi).[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-96>)
### Law
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Police_Chuprasi%2C_Delhi.png/250px-Police_Chuprasi%2C_Delhi.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Police_Chuprasi,_Delhi.png>)Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II, 1842
The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed _[fiqh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fiqh> "Fiqh")_ (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the _[qadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qadi> "Qadi")_ (judge), _[mufti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mufti> "Mufti")_ (jurisconsult), and _[muhtasib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhtasib> "Muhtasib")_ (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>) Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Khalfaoui-98>)
#### Legal ideology
The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni [Hanafi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hanafi> "Hanafi") system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the _[al-Hidayah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Al-Hidayah> "Al-Hidayah")_ (the best guidance) and the _Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya_ (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the _[Fatawa 'Alamgiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatawa_%27Alamgiri> "Fatawa 'Alamgiri")_ was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Khalfaoui-98>)
The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>)
#### Courts of law
Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the _qadi_. The Mughal _qadi_ was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The _qadi_ also had additional importance in documents, as the seal of the _qadi_ was required to validate deeds and tax records. _Qadis_ did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the _[pargana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pargana> "Pargana")_ (district) _qadi_. More prestigious positions were those of the _qadi al-quddat_ (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the _qadi-yi lashkar_ (judge of the army).[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>) _Qadis_ were usually appointed by the emperor or the _sadr-us-sudr_ (chief of charities).[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>)[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-99>) The jurisdiction of the _qadi_ was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-100>)
The _[jagirdar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jagirdar> "Jagirdar")_ (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials, who held more authority and punitive power than the local _qadi_. Such officials included the _[kotwal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kotwal> "Kotwal")_ (local police), the _[faujdar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Faujdar> "Faujdar")_ (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the _[subahdar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subahdar> "Subahdar")_ (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>) Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the [Agra Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Fort> "Agra Fort") that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-101>)
Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how _[panchayats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Panchayats> "Panchayats")_ (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chatterjee2019-97>)
## Economy
Main article: [Economy of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Economy_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Economy of the Mughal Empire")
The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>)[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Maddison2003-103>) India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Williamson-104>)[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Maddison2003-103>) Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of [proto-industrialisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-industrialisation> "Proto-industrialisation"), like that of 18th-century Western Europe before the [Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Industrial_Revolution> "Industrial Revolution").[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-voss-105>)
Modern historians and researchers generally agree that the character of the Mughal Empire's economic policy resembles the [laissez-faire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Laissez-faire> "Laissez-faire") system in dealing with trade and billions to achieve the economic ends.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJ.J.L._Gommans200275-106>)[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2018"...Mughal_rulers_pursued_a_more_laissez-faire_economic_approach,_benefiting_from_the_prosperity_of..."-107>)[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-108>)[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2008-109>)
The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system and creating a uniform currency.[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995185–204-110>) The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a [public works](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Public_works> "Public works") department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>)
The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-3-21>)[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-1-22>) These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Stein2010-4-23>) were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–-20>) and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-AsherTalbot2006-3-24>) In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of the Mughal Empire were around 99,000,000 rupees.[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJorge_Flores201573-111>)
### Coinage
Main article: [Mughal currency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_currency> "Mughal currency")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coin_of_Aurangzeb%2C_minted_in_Kabul.jpg/250px-Coin_of_Aurangzeb%2C_minted_in_Kabul.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Coin_of_Aurangzeb,_minted_in_Kabul.jpg>)Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul, dated 1691/2.
The Mughals adopted and standardised the [rupee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rupee> "Rupee") (_rupiya_ , or silver) and [dam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dam_\(Indian_coin\)> "Dam \(Indian coin\)") (copper) currencies introduced by [Sur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sur_Empire> "Sur Empire") Emperor [Sher Shah Suri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri> "Sher Shah Suri") during his brief rule.[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-112>) The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without [debasement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Debasement> "Debasement") until the 1720s.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Richards2003-113>)
Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported [bullion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bullion> "Bullion"), as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of [precious metals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Precious_metal> "Precious metal") into India.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995-114>)
### Labour
The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century [British India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_India> "British India"), where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy.[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoosvi2015433-115>) In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-116>)
According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoosvi2015432-117>) This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoosvi2015450-118>) However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for [manual labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manual_labour> "Manual labour").[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-moosvi-119>) While [slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Slavery> "Slavery") also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-moosvi-119>)
### Agriculture
Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>) A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and [barley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barley> "Barley"), and non-food [cash crops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cash_crop> "Cash crop") such as cotton, [indigo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indigofera_tinctoria> "Indigofera tinctoria") and [opium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Opium> "Opium"). By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>)
The Mughal administration emphasised the [agrarian reform](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agrarian_reform> "Agrarian reform") that began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance.[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-120>) The Mughal government funded the building of [irrigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Irrigation> "Irrigation") systems across the empire, which produced much higher [crop yields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crop_yield> "Crop yield") and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>)
A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called _zabt_. He replaced the [tribute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tribute> "Tribute") system, previously common in India and used by [Tokugawa Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_Japan> "Tokugawa Japan") at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Richards2003-113>) The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, [sugar cane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sugar_cane> "Sugar cane"), tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1995-114>) Under the _zabt_ system, the Mughals also conducted extensive [cadastral surveying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cadastral_surveying> "Cadastral surveying") to assess the area of land under [plough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Plough> "Plough") cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Richards2003-113>) The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors, including Aurangzeb.[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Ludden96-121>)
Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the [seed drill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seed_drill> "Seed drill") among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987214-122>) Geared sugar [rolling mills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roller_mill> "Roller mill") first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as [worm gearing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Worm_gear> "Worm gear"), by the 17th century.[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-123>)
### Industrial manufacturing
South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies coveted by the Europeans before the [Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Industrial_Revolution> "Industrial Revolution").[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew_de_la_Garza2016114–115-124>) Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output.[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-williamson-125>)
[Manufactured goods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manufactured_goods> "Manufactured goods") and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>) The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of [proto-industrialisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Proto-industrialisation> "Proto-industrialisation"), similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution.[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-voss-105>)
In [early modern Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_modern_Europe> "Early modern Europe"), there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, [indigo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indigo> "Indigo"), silks, and [saltpetre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Saltpetre> "Saltpetre") (for use in [munitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Munitions> "Munitions")).[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>) [European fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/1650%E2%80%931700_in_Western_European_fashion> "1650–1700 in Western European fashion"), for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Prakash-126>)
#### Textile industry
See also: [Muslin trade in Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muslin_trade_in_Bengal> "Muslin trade in Bengal") and [Mughal clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_clothing> "Mughal clothing")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Renaldis_muslin_woman.jpg/250px-Renaldis_muslin_woman.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Renaldis_muslin_woman.jpg>)Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century.
The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was [textile manufacturing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Textile_manufacturing> "Textile manufacturing"), particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of [piece goods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Piece_goods> "Piece goods"), [calicos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Calico> "Calico"), and [muslins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muslin> "Muslin"). The cotton [textile industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Textile_industry> "Textile industry") was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>) India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century,[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-127>) and it represented the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century.[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Parthasarathi-128>) The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of [Dhaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhaka> "Dhaka").[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Eaton-129>)
The production of cotton was advanced by the diffusion of the [spinning wheel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spinning_wheel> "Spinning wheel") across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the [spinning wheel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spinning_wheel> "Spinning wheel") and the incorporation of the [worm gear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Worm_gear> "Worm gear") and [crank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crank_\(mechanism\)> "Crank \(mechanism\)") handle into the roller [cotton gin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cotton_gin> "Cotton gin") led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-130>)
### Bengal Subah
Main article: [Bengal Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal_Subah> "Bengal Subah")
See also: [Muslin trade in Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muslin_trade_in_Bengal> "Muslin trade in Bengal")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Boro_Katra_4_by_Ashif_Siddique.jpg/250px-Boro_Katra_4_by_Ashif_Siddique.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Boro_Katra_4_by_Ashif_Siddique.jpg>)Ruins of the [Great Caravanserai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bara_Katra> "Bara Katra") in [Dhaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhaka> "Dhaka")
The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-131>) Historian [C. A. Bayly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/C._A._Bayly> "C. A. Bayly") wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-132>) Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Prakash-126>) The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Nanda-2005-133>)
After 150 years of rule by Mughal [viceroys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Viceroy> "Viceroy"), Bengal gained de facto independence as a dominion under [Murshid Quli Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Murshid_Quli_Khan> "Murshid Quli Khan"), the first [Nawab of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal> "Nawab of Bengal") in 1717.[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-134>) The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, which regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Nanda-2005-133>)
#### Shipbuilding industry
Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-ray174-135>) He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-ray174-135>)
## Demographics
See also: [Demographics of India § History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Demographics_of_India#History> "Demographics of India")
### Population
India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-mcevedy184-136>) to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-maddison236-137>) The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in [Indian history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_history> "Indian history") before the Mughal era.[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Maddison2003-103>)[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-mcevedy184-136>) By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987170-138>)
The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/India> "India"), [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pakistan> "Pakistan"), and [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bangladesh> "Bangladesh"), and compared to the [world population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/World_population> "World population"): 
Year  | Mughal Empire population  | Total Indian population  | % of South Asian population  | World population  | % of world population   
---|---|---|---|---|---  
1500  | —  | 100,000,000[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-mcevedy184-136>) | —  | 425,000,000[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Biraben-139>) | —   
1600  | 115,000,000[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987170-138>) | 130,000,000[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-mcevedy184-136>) | 89  | 579,000,000[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Biraben-139>) | 20   
1700  | 158,400,000[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-borocz-7>) | 160,000,000[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-mcevedy184-136>) | 99  | 679,000,000[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Biraben-139>) | 23   
There was a notable presence of [jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jewish> "Jewish") diaspora in the Mughal empire. The Jewish community during mainly engaged in the trading of jewelry and precious stones,[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-IshratAlam-140>) while some like [Sarmad Kashani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sarmad_Kashani> "Sarmad Kashani") also engaged in religious activities within the Mughal court.[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Fischel-141>)
### Urbanisation
According to [Irfan Habib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Irfan_Habib> "Irfan Habib"), cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanisation for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Eraly2007-142>) This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of [British India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Raj> "British Raj") in the 19th century;[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Eraly2007-142>) the level of urbanisation in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-143>)
Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987170-138>) while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987165-144>) By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-145>)
Those estimates were criticised by [Tim Dyson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tim_Dyson> "Tim Dyson"), who considers them exaggerations. According to Dyson, urbanisation of the Mughal Empire was less than 9%.[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-146>)
The historian [Nizamuddin Ahmad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nizamuddin_Ahmad> "Nizamuddin Ahmad") (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships.[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Eraly2007-142>) Several cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Eraly2007-142>) with larger cities including [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra") (in [Agra Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Subah> "Agra Subah")) with up to 800,000 people, [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore") (in [Lahore Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore_Subah> "Lahore Subah")) with up to 700,000 people,[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabibKumarRaychaudhuri1987171-147>) [Dhaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhaka> "Dhaka") (in [Bengal Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal_Subah> "Bengal Subah")) with over 1 million people,[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-148>) and Delhi (in [Delhi Subah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi_Subah> "Delhi Subah")) with over 600,000 people.[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Moosvi2008-149>)
Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Schmidt2015-102>) However, several cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Chaudhuri2008-150>)
## Culture
See also: [Indo-Persian culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Persian_culture> "Indo-Persian culture")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Mushafi-ghulam-hamdani.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Mushafi-ghulam-hamdani.png>)[Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghulam_Hamdani_Mushafi> "Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi"), the poet first believed to have coined the name "_Urdu_ " around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time.[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-151>)
Generally, classical historiographies depicted the Mughal Empire's origin as a sedentarised agrarian society. However, modern historians such as [André Wink](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wink> "André Wink"), [Jos J. L. Gommans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jos_J._L._Gommans> "Jos J. L. Gommans"), [Anatoly Khazanov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anatoly_Khazanov> "Anatoly Khazanov"), Thomas J. Barfield, and others, argued the Mughals originated from nomadic culture.[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaushik_RoyPeter_Lorge2014146-152>) [Pius Malekandathil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pius_Malekandathil> "Pius Malekandathil") argued instead that although it was true that the Mughal had their origin as nomadic civilisation, they became more sendentarised as time passed, as exemplified by their military tradition.[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-153>) The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as: 
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Mir_Taqi_Mir_1786.jpg/250px-Mir_Taqi_Mir_1786.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Mir_Taqi_Mir_1786.jpg>)Mir Taqi Mir, an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg/250px-Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Taj_mahal_\(1870s\).jpg>)The Taj Mahal in the 1870s
  * Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-154>)
  * The amalgamation of [Persian art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_art> "Persian art") and literature with [Indian art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_art> "Indian art").[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-155>)

[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Badshahi_Mosque%2C_Lahore._King%27s_Mosque.jpg/250px-Badshahi_Mosque%2C_Lahore._King%27s_Mosque.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Badshahi_Mosque,_Lahore._King%27s_Mosque.jpg>)Badshahi Mosque, [Lahore, Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore,_Punjab> "Lahore, Punjab"), Pakistan
  * The development of [Mughlai cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughlai_cuisine> "Mughlai cuisine"), an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles.
  * The development of [Mughal clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_clothing> "Mughal clothing"), jewellery and fashion, utilising richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet.
  * The influence of the Persian language over [Old Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_Hindi> "Old Hindi") led to the development of the [Hindustani language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustani_language> "Hindustani language").[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-156>)
  * The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through [Mughal gardening](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_gardens> "Mughal gardens").[[156]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-157>)
  * The introduction of [Turkish baths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turkish_bath> "Turkish bath") into the Indian subcontinent.
  * The evolution and refinement of [Mughal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture") and [Indian architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_architecture> "Indian architecture"), and, in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal").
  * The development of the [Pehlwani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pehlwani> "Pehlwani") style of [Indian wrestling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_wrestling> "Indian wrestling"), a combination of Indian [malla-yuddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Malla-yuddha> "Malla-yuddha") and Persian [varzesh-e bastani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Varzesh-e_bastani> "Varzesh-e bastani").[[157]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Alter1992a-158>)[[158]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Alter1992b-159>)
  * The construction of [Maktab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maktab_\(education\)> "Maktab \(education\)") schools, where youth were taught the [Quran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Quran> "Quran") and [Islamic law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sharia> "Sharia") such as the _[Fatawa 'Alamgiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatawa_%27Alamgiri> "Fatawa 'Alamgiri")_ in their indigenous languages.
  * The development of [Hindustani classical music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustani_classical_music> "Hindustani classical music"),[[159]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-160>) and instruments such as the [sitar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sitar> "Sitar").

[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg/250px-Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg>)[Buland Darwaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Buland_Darwaza> "Buland Darwaza") in Fatehpur Sikiri, Agra, India
### Customs
The procession of marriage among the royals of the Mughal Empire was recorded with many reports of extravagant gifts. One occasion was during the marriage of a son of emperor [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar"), [Salim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir"), with the daughter of a ruler of [Bijapur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bijapur> "Bijapur"), [Raja Bhagwant Das](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bhagwant_Das> "Bhagwant Das"), where the gift presented by Bhagwant Das consisted of many horses, 100 elephants, many male and female slaves of [Abyssinian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Habesha_peoples> "Habesha peoples"), Caucasian, and native Indian origins, who brought with them various gold and silver utensils as [dowry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dowry> "Dowry").[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-161>)
### Architecture
Main articles: [Mughal architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture") and [Yakhchāl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l> "Yakhchāl")
The Mughals made a major contribution to the [Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_subcontinent> "Indian subcontinent") with the development of their distinctive architectural style. This style was derived from earlier [Indo-Islamic architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture> "Indo-Islamic architecture") as well as from [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Iranian_architecture> "Iranian architecture") and [Central Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Architecture_of_Central_Asia> "Architecture of Central Asia") architecture (particularly [Timurid architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_architecture> "Timurid architecture")), while incorporating further influences from [Hindu architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindu_architecture> "Hindu architecture").[[161]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Petersen1996-162>)[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-163>) [Mughal architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture") is distinguished, among other things, by [bulbous domes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Onion_dome> "Onion dome"), [ogive arches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pointed_arch> "Pointed arch"), carefully-composed and polished façades, and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials.[[161]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Petersen1996-162>)[[163]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-164>)
Furthermore, [William Dalrymple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/William_Dalrymple> "William Dalrymple") mentioned that during the final days of the Mughal [fall of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Delhi> "Siege of Delhi") in 1857, an [ice house](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ice_house_\(building\)> "Ice house \(building\)") structure existed in Delhi.[[164]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-165>) Emperor Shah Jahan has recorded establishing an ice-house in [Sirmaur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sirmaur_district> "Sirmaur district"), north of Delhi.[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-166>)
Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan"), including the [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal")—a [UNESCO World Heritage Site](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site> "UNESCO World Heritage Site") considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Centre-29>) attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, [gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_garden> "Mughal garden") and forts built by the dynasty stand today in [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra"), [Aurangabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtra> "Aurangabad, Maharashtra"), [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi> "Delhi"), [Dhaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhaka> "Dhaka"), [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri"), [Jaipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jaipur> "Jaipur"), [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore"), [Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kabul> "Kabul"), [Sheikhupura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sheikhupura> "Sheikhupura"), and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,[[166]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-167>) such as:
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/1._%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.jpg/250px-1._%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:1._%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.jpg>)[Lalbagh Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lalbagh_Fort> "Lalbagh Fort") aerial view in Dhaka, Bangladesh India  | Pakistan  | Bangladesh  | Afghanistan   
---|---|---|---  
  * [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal") in Agra, India
  * [Agra Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Fort> "Agra Fort") in Agra, India
  * [Buland Darwaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Buland_Darwaza> "Buland Darwaza") in Agra, India
  * [Akbar's tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar%27s_tomb> "Akbar's tomb") in Sikandra, India
  * [Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Mariam-uz-Zamani> "Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani") in Sikandra, India
  * [Humayun's Tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun%27s_Tomb> "Humayun's Tomb") in Delhi, India
  * [Jama Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jama_Masjid,_Delhi> "Jama Masjid, Delhi") in Delhi, India
  * [Red Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Red_Fort> "Red Fort") in Delhi, India
  * [Sunder Nursery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sunder_Nursery> "Sunder Nursery") in Delhi, India
  * [Purana Qila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Purana_Qila> "Purana Qila") in Delhi, India
  * [Sher Mandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sher_Mandal> "Sher Mandal") in Delhi, India
  * [Pinjore Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pinjore_Gardens> "Pinjore Gardens") in Pinjore, India
  * [Shalimar Bagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shalimar_Bagh,_Srinagar> "Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar") in Srinagar, India
  * [Nishat Bagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nishat_Bagh> "Nishat Bagh") in Srinagar, India
  * [Chasma Shahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chashme_Shahi> "Chashme Shahi") in Srinagar, India
  * [Pari Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pari_Mahal> "Pari Mahal") in Srinagar, India
  * [Verinag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Verinag> "Verinag") Gardens in Srinagar, India
  * [Allahabad Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Allahabad_Fort> "Allahabad Fort") in Prayagraj, India
  * [Shahi Bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahi_Bridge> "Shahi Bridge") in Jaunpur, India
  * [Bibi Ka Maqbara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bibi_Ka_Maqbara> "Bibi Ka Maqbara") in Aurangabad, India
  * [Kos Minar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kos_Minar> "Kos Minar") in Haryana, India
  * Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar, India

| 
  * [Badshahi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Badshahi_Mosque> "Badshahi Mosque") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Shalimar Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shalimar_Gardens,_Lahore> "Shalimar Gardens, Lahore") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Lahore Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore_Fort> "Lahore Fort") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Shahi Hammam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahi_Hammam> "Shahi Hammam") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Wazir Khan Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wazir_Khan_Mosque> "Wazir Khan Mosque") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Tomb of Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangir> "Tomb of Jahangir") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Tomb of Anarkali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Anarkali> "Tomb of Anarkali") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Tomb of Nur Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Nur_Jahan> "Tomb of Nur Jahan") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Tomb of Asif Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Asif_Khan> "Tomb of Asif Khan") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Begum Shahi Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Begum_Shahi_Mosque> "Begum Shahi Mosque") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Akbari Sarai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbari_Sarai> "Akbari Sarai") in Lahore, Pakistan
  * [Hiran Minar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hiran_Minar> "Hiran Minar") in Sheikhpura, Pakistan
  * [Mahabat Khan Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mahabat_Khan_Mosque> "Mahabat Khan Mosque") in Peshawar, Pakistan
  * [Shahi Eid Gah Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahi_Eid_Gah_Mosque> "Shahi Eid Gah Mosque") in Multan, Pakistan
  * [Mausoleum of Masum Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Masum_Shah> "Masum Shah") in Sukkur, Pakistan
  * [Losar Baoli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Losar_Baoli> "Losar Baoli") in Taxila, Pakistan
  * [Makli Necropolis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Makli_Necropolis> "Makli Necropolis") in Thatta, Pakistan
  * [Shah Jahan Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_Mosque,_Thatta> "Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta") in Thatta, Pakistan

| 
  * [Mughal Eidgah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhanmondi_Shahi_Eidgah> "Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Lalbagh Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lalbagh_Fort> "Lalbagh Fort") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Shahi Eidgah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sylhet_Shahi_Eidgah> "Sylhet Shahi Eidgah") in Sylhet, Bangladesh
  * [Mughal Tahakhana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Tahakhana> "Mughal Tahakhana") in Chapai Nawabganj, Bangladesh
  * [Sat Gambuj Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sat_Gambuj_Mosque> "Sat Gambuj Mosque") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Masjid-e-Siraj ud-Daulah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Masjid-e-Siraj_ud-Daulah> "Masjid-e-Siraj ud-Daulah") in Chittagong, Bangladesh
  * [Allakuri Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Allakuri_Mosque> "Allakuri Mosque") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Chawkbazar Shahi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chawk_Mosque,_Dhaka> "Chawk Mosque, Dhaka") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Laldighi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Laldighi_Mosque> "Laldighi Mosque") in Rangpur, Bangladesh
  * [Khan Mohammad Mridha Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khan_Mohammad_Mridha_Mosque> "Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Wali Khan Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wali_Khan_Mosque> "Wali Khan Mosque") in Chittagong, Bangladesh
  * [Shaista Khan Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shaista_Khan_Mosque> "Shaista Khan Mosque"), in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Musa Khan Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Musa_Khan_Mosque> "Musa Khan Mosque"), in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Shahbaz Khan Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahbaz_Khan_Mosque> "Shahbaz Khan Mosque"), in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Kartalab Khan Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kartalab_Khan_Mosque> "Kartalab Khan Mosque") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Azimpur Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Azimpur_Mosque> "Azimpur Mosque") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Goaldi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Goaldi_Mosque> "Goaldi Mosque") in Sonargaon, Bangladesh
  * [Atia Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Atia_Mosque> "Atia Mosque") in Tangail, Bangladesh
  * [Arifail Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Arifile_Mosque> "Arifile Mosque") in Brahmanbaria, Bangladesh
  * [Bazra Shahi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bajra_Shahi_Mosque> "Bajra Shahi Mosque") in Noakhali, Bangladesh
  * [Masjid Kur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mosjidkur_Mosque> "Mosjidkur Mosque") in Khulna, Bangladesh
  * [Nayabad Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nayabad_Mosque> "Nayabad Mosque") in Dinajpur, Bangladesh
  * [Ghayebi Dighi Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghayebi_Dighi_Masjid> "Ghayebi Dighi Masjid") in Sylhet, Bangladesh
  * [Hussaini Dalan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hussaini_Dalan> "Hussaini Dalan") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Bara Katra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bara_Katra> "Bara Katra") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Hajiganj Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hajiganj_Fort> "Hajiganj Fort") in Narayanganj, Bangladesh
  * [Idrakpur Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Idrakpur_Fort> "Idrakpur Fort") in Munshiganj, Bangladesh
  * [Choto Katra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Choto_Katra> "Choto Katra") in Dhaka, Bangladesh
  * [Sonakanda Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sonakanda_Fort> "Sonakanda Fort") in Narayanganj, Bangladesh

| 
  * [Bagh-e-Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gardens_of_Babur> "Gardens of Babur") in Kabul, Afghanistan
  * Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan

  
### Art and literature
Main articles: [Mughal painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_painting> "Mughal painting") and [Mughal clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_clothing> "Mughal clothing")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Finial_in_the_Form_of_a_Parrot%2C_Mughal_empire.jpeg/250px-Finial_in_the_Form_of_a_Parrot%2C_Mughal_empire.jpeg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Finial_in_the_Form_of_a_Parrot,_Mughal_empire.jpeg>)Finial in the form of a parrot, Mughal Empire, 17th century
The [Mughal artistic tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_painting> "Mughal painting"), mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.[[167]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-168>) Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.[[168]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-169>) Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-170>) For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as [Ustad Mansur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ustad_Mansur> "Ustad Mansur") to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire. 
The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the _[Razmnama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Razmnama> "Razmnama")_ (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the _[Mahabharata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mahabharata> "Mahabharata")_) to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the _[Baburnama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baburnama> "Baburnama")_ and _[Akbarnama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbarnama> "Akbarnama")_ , and _[Tuzk-e-Jahangiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tuzk-e-Jahangiri> "Tuzk-e-Jahangiri")_. Richly finished albums (_[muraqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muraqqa> "Muraqqa")_) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather.[[170]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-171>) Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.[[171]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-172>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/India%2C_Mughal%2C_early_17th_century_-_An_Illuminated_Folio_from_the_Royal_Manuscript_of_the_Farhang-i_Jahangiri_%28_-_2013.318.a_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-190px-India%2C_Mughal%2C_early_17th_century_-_An_Illuminated_Folio_from_the_Royal_Manuscript_of_the_Farhang-i_Jahangiri_%28_-_2013.318.a_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:India,_Mughal,_early_17th_century_-_An_Illuminated_Folio_from_the_Royal_Manuscript_of_the_Farhang-i_Jahangiri_\(_-_2013.318.a_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif>)Folio from _[Farhang-i-Jahangiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farhang-i-Jahangiri> "Farhang-i-Jahangiri"),_ a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era.
### Language
Main articles: [Persian language in the Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_language_in_the_Indian_subcontinent> "Persian language in the Indian subcontinent"), [Persian and Urdu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_and_Urdu> "Persian and Urdu"), and [Hindustani language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustani_language> "Hindustani language")
Though the Mughals were of [Turko-Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turko-Mongol> "Turko-Mongol") origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the [Persian language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_language> "Persian language") in the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 16th-century Turki (Chagatai) was understood by relatively few at court.[[172]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeyller2011329-173>) Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India.[[173]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-174>)[[174]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-175>) Historian [Muzaffar Alam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muzaffar_Alam> "Muzaffar Alam") argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching [Indo-Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Persian> "Indo-Persian") political culture, to unite their diverse empire.[[175]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-176>) Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as [Hindustani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindustani_language> "Hindustani language"), developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan"), who described it as the language of his _[dastans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dastan> "Dastan")_ (prose romances) and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite.[[176]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-177>)[[177]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-178>) According to contemporary poet [Mir Taqi Mir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mir_Taqi_Mir> "Mir Taqi Mir"), "Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King."[[178]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-179>)[[179]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-180>)
## Military
Further information: [Army of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Army_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Army of the Mughal Empire"), [Mughal weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_weapons> "Mughal weapons"), and [Mughal artillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_artillery> "Mughal artillery")
### Gunpowder warfare
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Officer_of_the_Mughal_Army%2C_c.1585_%28colour_litho%29.jpg/250px-Officer_of_the_Mughal_Army%2C_c.1585_%28colour_litho%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Officer_of_the_Mughal_Army,_c.1585_\(colour_litho\).jpg>)Mughal [matchlock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Matchlock> "Matchlock") rifle, 16th century
See also: [Gunpowder empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gunpowder_empires> "Gunpowder empires") and [History of gunpowder: India and the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_gunpowder#India_and_the_Mughal_Empire> "History of gunpowder")
Mughal India was one of the three Islamic [gunpowder empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gunpowder_empires> "Gunpowder empires"), along with the [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire") and [Safavid Persia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Persia> "Safavid Persia").[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Hodgson-39>)[[180]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011-181>)[[181]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-182>) By the time he was invited by [Lodi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lodi_dynasty> "Lodi dynasty") governor of [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore"), [Daulat Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Daulat_Khan_Lodi> "Daulat Khan Lodi"), to support his rebellion against Lodi [Sultan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultan> "Sultan") [Ibrahim Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi> "Ibrahim Lodi"), [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur") was familiar with [gunpowder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gunpowder> "Gunpowder") [firearms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Firearm> "Firearm") and [field artillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Field_artillery> "Field artillery"), and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert [Ustad Ali Quli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ustad_Ali_Quli> "Ustad Ali Quli"), who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the [mounted archers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mounted_archer> "Mounted archer") on both wings. Babur used this formation at the [First Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat> "First Battle of Panipat") in 1526, where the [Afghan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afghan_\(ethnonym\)> "Afghan \(ethnonym\)") and [Rajput](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rajput> "Rajput") forces loyal to the [Delhi Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi_Sultanate> "Delhi Sultanate"), though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire's history.[[182]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011255-183>) In India, guns made of [bronze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bronze> "Bronze") were recovered from [Calicut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kozhikode> "Kozhikode") (1504) and [Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Diu,_India> "Diu, India") (1533).[[183]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Partington226-184>) [Fathullah Shirazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fathullah_Shirazi> "Fathullah Shirazi") (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-gun shot. As opposed to the [polybolos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polybolos> "Polybolos") and [repeating crossbows](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Repeating_crossbow> "Repeating crossbow") used earlier in [ancient Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Greece> "Ancient Greece") and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple [gun barrels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gun_barrel> "Gun barrel") that fired [hand cannons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hand_cannon> "Hand cannon") loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a [volley gun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Volley_gun> "Volley gun").[[184]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Fathullah_Shirazi-185>)
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/The_Padshahnama%2C_imperial_court_guards_and_nobles.jpg/250px-The_Padshahnama%2C_imperial_court_guards_and_nobles.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:The_Padshahnama,_imperial_court_guards_and_nobles.jpg>)Mughal [musketeer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Musketeer> "Musketeer"), 17th century
By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns, in particular, became visible in [Tanjore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tanjore> "Tanjore"), [Dacca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dacca> "Dacca"), [Bijapur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bijapur> "Bijapur") and [Murshidabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Murshidabad> "Murshidabad").[[185]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-186>)
### Rocketry and explosives
In the sixteenth century, [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar") was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder [rockets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rocket> "Rocket") known as _bans_ , particularly against [war elephants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/War_elephant> "War elephant"), during the battle of Sanbal.[[186]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-187>)[[187]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-188>) In 1657, the [Mughal Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Army_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Army of the Mughal Empire") used rockets during the [siege of Bidar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Bidar> "Siege of Bidar").[[188]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Yazdani15-189>) Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and [grenades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Grenade> "Grenade") while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting, [Bidar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bidar> "Bidar") was captured by the Mughals.[[188]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Yazdani15-189>)
In _A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder_ , [James Riddick Partington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/James_Riddick_Partington> "James Riddick Partington") described Indian rockets and [explosive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Explosive_weapon> "Explosive weapon") [mines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Land_mine> "Land mine"):[[183]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Partington226-184>)
> The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and [Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir").
## Science
A new curriculum for the [madrasas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Madrasa> "Madrasa") that stressed the importance of _uloom-i-muqalat_ (Rational Sciences) and introduced new subjects such as [geometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Geometry> "Geometry"), medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars, engineers and architects.[[189]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-190>)[[190]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-191>)
### Astronomy
See also: [Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world> "Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world") and [Indian astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_astronomy> "Indian astronomy")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Jantar_Mantar._New_Delhi_%28Misra_Yantra%29._2010.jpg/250px-Jantar_Mantar._New_Delhi_%28Misra_Yantra%29._2010.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Jantar_Mantar._New_Delhi_\(Misra_Yantra\)._2010.jpg>)[Jantar Mantar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jantar_Mantar> "Jantar Mantar") in Delhi, built by [Jai Singh II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sawai_Jai_Singh> "Sawai Jai Singh")
While there appears to have been little concern for [theoretical astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Theoretical_astronomy> "Theoretical astronomy"), Mughal [astronomers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomers> "Astronomers") made advances in [observational astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Observational_astronomy> "Observational astronomy") and produced some _[Zij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zij> "Zij")_ treatises. Humayun built a personal [observatory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Observatory> "Observatory") near Delhi. According to [Sulaiman Nadvi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sulaiman_Nadvi> "Sulaiman Nadvi"), Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too, but were unable to do so. The [astronomical instruments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomical_instruments> "Astronomical instruments") and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from [Islamic astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world> "Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world").[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Sharma-192>)[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Baber-193>) In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and [Hindu astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hindu_astronomy> "Hindu astronomy"), where Islamic observational instruments were combined with [Hindu computational](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_mathematics> "Indian mathematics") techniques.[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Sharma-192>)[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Baber-193>)
During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king [Jai Singh II of Amber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jai_Singh_II_of_Amber> "Jai Singh II of Amber") continued the work of Mughal [astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Astronomy> "Astronomy"). In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called [Yantra Mandirs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jantar_Mantar> "Jantar Mantar"), to rival [Ulugh Beg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ulugh_Beg> "Ulugh Beg")'s [Samarkand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Samarkand> "Samarkand") [observatory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory> "Ulugh Beg Observatory"), and to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the _[Siddhantas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Surya_Siddhanta> "Surya Siddhanta")_ and Islamic observations in _[Zij-i-Sultani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zij-i-Sultani> "Zij-i-Sultani")_. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Sharma-192>)[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Baber-193>)
### Metallurgy
See also: [History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent> "History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent") and [Mughal Karkhanas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_Karkhanas> "Mughal Karkhanas")
[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mughal_Celestial_Globe.jpg/250px-Mughal_Celestial_Globe.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Mughal_Celestial_Globe.jpg>)Celestial Globe by [Muhammad Saleh Thattvi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Saleh_Thattvi> "Muhammad Saleh Thattvi"), c.1663[[193]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-194>)
The society within the Mughal Empire operated the _Karkhanas_ , which functioned as workshops for craftsmen. These Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in irons, copper and other metals.[[194]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-195>)[[195]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-196>)[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-197>)
Another aspect of the remarkable invention in Mughal India is the [lost-wax cast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lost-wax_casting> "Lost-wax casting"), hollow, seamless, [celestial globe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Celestial_globe> "Celestial globe"). It was invented in [Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kashmir> "Kashmir") by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 [AH](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anno_Hegirae> "Anno Hegirae") (1589–90 CE). Twenty other such [globes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Globe> "Globe") were later produced in [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore") and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern [metallurgists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Metallurgists> "Metallurgists") to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any [seams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seam> "wikt:seam").[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-198>) A 17th-century celestial globe was also made by Diya' ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).[[198]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-199>)
## List of emperors
Main article: [List of emperors of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "List of emperors of the Mughal Empire")
Portrait  | Titular Name  | Birth Name  | Birth  | Reign  | Death   
---|---|---|---|---|---  
1 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Idealized_portrait_of_Babur_%281483-1530%29_in_Persian_style%2C_painted_circa_1605-1615_in_India_%28British_Museum_1921%2C1011%2C0.3%29.jpg/120px-Idealized_portrait_of_Babur_%281483-1530%29_in_Persian_style%2C_painted_circa_1605-1615_in_India_%28British_Museum_1921%2C1011%2C0.3%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Idealized_portrait_of_Babur_\(1483-1530\)_in_Persian_style,_painted_circa_1605-1615_in_India_\(British_Museum_1921,1011,0.3\).jpg>) | **Babur بابر** | [Zahir al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur")ظهیر الدین محمد | 14 February 1483 [Andijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Andijan> "Andijan"), Uzbekistan  | 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530  | 26 December 1530 (aged 47) [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra"), India   
2 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Darbar_of_Humayun%2C_detail%2C_Humayun._Akbarnama%2C_1602-4%2C_British_Library.png/120px-Darbar_of_Humayun%2C_detail%2C_Humayun._Akbarnama%2C_1602-4%2C_British_Library.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Darbar_of_Humayun,_detail,_Humayun._Akbarnama,_1602-4,_British_Library.png>) | **Humayun همایوں** | [Nasir al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun> "Humayun")نصیر الدین محمد | 6 March 1508 [Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kabul> "Kabul"), Afghanistan  | 26 December 1530 – 17 May 1540 22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556 (10 years 3 months 25 days)  | 27 January 1556 (aged 47) Delhi, India   
3 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Govardhan._Akbar_With_Lion_and_Calf_ca._1630%2C_Metmuseum_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-Govardhan._Akbar_With_Lion_and_Calf_ca._1630%2C_Metmuseum_%28cropped%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Govardhan._Akbar_With_Lion_and_Calf_ca._1630,_Metmuseum_\(cropped\).jpg>) | **Akbar اکبر** | [Jalal al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar")جلال الدین محمد | 15 October 1542 [Umerkot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Umerkot> "Umerkot"), Pakistan  | 11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605 (49 years 9 months 0 days)  | 27 October 1605 (aged 63) Agra, India   
4 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Jahangircrop.jpeg/120px-Jahangircrop.jpeg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Jahangircrop.jpeg>) | **Jahangir جهانگیر** | [Nur al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir") نور الدین محمد | 31 August 1569 Agra, India  | 3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627 (21 years 11 months 23 days)  | 28 October 1627 (aged 58) [Bhimber, Azad Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bhimber> "Bhimber"), [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pakistan> "Pakistan")[[199]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_note-Allan_1934_p._398-200>)  
5 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Shah_Jahan_of_Mughal_empire.jpg/120px-Shah_Jahan_of_Mughal_empire.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Shah_Jahan_of_Mughal_empire.jpg>) | **Shah Jahan شاہ جهان** | [Shihab al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan")شهاب الدین محمد | 5 January 1592 [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore> "Lahore"), Pakistan  | 19 January 1628 – 31 July 1658 (30 years 8 months 25 days)  | 22 January 1666 (aged 74) Agra, India   
6 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/The_Emperor_Aurangzeb_Alamgir.jpg/120px-The_Emperor_Aurangzeb_Alamgir.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:The_Emperor_Aurangzeb_Alamgir.jpg>) | **Aurangzeb اورنگزیب ** **Alamgir عالمگیر** | [Muhi al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhi_al-Din_Muhammad> "Muhi al-Din Muhammad") محی الدین محمد | 3 November 1618 [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gujarat> "Gujarat"), India  | 31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707 (48 years 7 months 0 days)  | 3 March 1707 (aged 88) [Ahmednagar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahmednagar> "Ahmednagar"), India   
7 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Azam_shah_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-Azam_shah_%28cropped%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Azam_shah_\(cropped\).jpg>) | **Azam Shah اعظم شاه** | [Qutb al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Azam_Shah> "Azam Shah")قطب الدين محمد | 28 June 1653 [Burhanpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Burhanpur> "Burhanpur"), India  | 14 March 1707 – 20 June 1707  | 20 June 1707 (aged 53) Agra, India   
8 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Bahadur_Shah_I_of_India.jpg/120px-Bahadur_Shah_I_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Bahadur_Shah_I_of_India.jpg>) | **Bahadur Shah بهادر شاہ** | [Qutb al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_I> "Bahadur Shah I")قطب الدین محمد  | 14 October 1643 Burhanpur, India  | 19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712 (4 years, 253 days)  | 27 February 1712 (aged 68) Lahore, Pakistan   
9 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Jahandar_Shah%2C_Mughal_Emperor..jpg/120px-Jahandar_Shah%2C_Mughal_Emperor..jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Jahandar_Shah,_Mughal_Emperor..jpg>) | **Jahandar Shah جهاندار شاہ** | [Muiz al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahandar_Shah> "Jahandar Shah") معز الدین محمد  | 9 May 1661 Deccan, India  | 27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713 (0 years, 350 days)  | 12 February 1713 (aged 51) Delhi, India   
10[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Farrukhsiyar_of_India.jpg/120px-Farrukhsiyar_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Farrukhsiyar_of_India.jpg>) | **Farrukh Siyar فرخ سیر** | [Muin al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farrukhsiyar> "Farrukhsiyar") موئن الدین محمدPuppet King Under the [Sayyids of Barha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sayyid_Brothers> "Sayyid Brothers") | 20 August 1685 [Aurangabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangabad> "Aurangabad"), India  | 11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719 (6 years, 48 days)  | 19 April 1719 (aged 33) Delhi, India   
11[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rafi_ud-Darajat_of_India.jpg/120px-Rafi_ud-Darajat_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Rafi_ud-Darajat_of_India.jpg>) | **Rafi ud-Darajat رفیع الدرجات** | [Shams al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rafi_ud-Darajat> "Rafi ud-Darajat")شمس الدین محمدPuppet King Under the [Sayyids of Barha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sayyid_Brothers> "Sayyid Brothers") | 1 December 1699  | 28 February 1719 – 6 June 1719 (0 years, 98 days)  | 6 June 1719 (aged 19) Agra, India   
12[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Shah_Jahan_II_of_India.jpg/120px-Shah_Jahan_II_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Shah_Jahan_II_of_India.jpg>) | **Shah Jahan II شاہ جهان دوم** | [Rafi al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_II> "Shah Jahan II") رفع الدين محمدPuppet King Under the [Sayyids of Barha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sayyid_Brothers> "Sayyid Brothers") | 5 January 1696  | 6 June 1719 – 17 September 1719 (0 years, 105 days)  | 18 September 1719 (aged 23) Agra, India   
13[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Muhammad_Shah_of_India.jpg/120px-Muhammad_Shah_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Muhammad_Shah_of_India.jpg>) | **Muhammad Shah محمد شاه** | [Nasir al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Shah> "Muhammad Shah") نصیر الدین محمد | 7 August 1702 [Ghazni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghazni> "Ghazni"), Afghanistan  | 27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748 (28 years, 212 days)  | 26 April 1748 (aged 45) Delhi, India   
14[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Ahmad_Shah_Bahadur_of_India.jpg/120px-Ahmad_Shah_Bahadur_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Ahmad_Shah_Bahadur_of_India.jpg>) | **Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بهادر** | [Mujahid al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Bahadur> "Ahmad Shah Bahadur") مجاهد الدین محمد | 23 December 1725 Delhi, India  | 29 April 1748 – 2 June 1754 (6 years, 37 days)  | 1 January 1775 (aged 49) Delhi, India   
15[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alamgir_II_of_India.jpg/120px-Alamgir_II_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Alamgir_II_of_India.jpg>) | **Alamgir II عالمگیر دوم** | [Aziz al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alamgir_II> "Alamgir II") عزیز اُلدین محمد | 6 June 1699 Burhanpur, India  | 3 June 1754 – 29 November 1759 (5 years, 180 days)  | 29 November 1759 (aged 60) Kotla Fateh Shah, India   
16[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Shah_Jahan_III_of_India.jpg/120px-Shah_Jahan_III_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Shah_Jahan_III_of_India.jpg>) | **Shah Jahan III شاه جهان سوم** | [Muhi al-Millat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_III> "Shah Jahan III") محی الملت | 1711  | 10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760 (282 days)  | 1772 (aged 60–61)   
17[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg/120px-Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg>) | **Shah Alam II شاه عالم دوم** | [Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Alam_II> "Shah Alam II") جلال الدین علی گوهر | 25 June 1728 Delhi, India  | 10 October 1760 – 31 July 1788 (27 years, 301 days)  | 19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India   
18[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Mughal_Emperor_Mahmud_Shah_Bahadur.jpg/120px-Mughal_Emperor_Mahmud_Shah_Bahadur.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Mughal_Emperor_Mahmud_Shah_Bahadur.jpg>) | **Jahan Shah جهان شاه** | [Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mahmud_Shah_Bahadur> "Mahmud Shah Bahadur") بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جهان شاہ Puppet King Under Ghulam Qadir Rogilla | 1749 Delhi, India  | 31 July 1788 – 11 October 1788 (63 days)  | 1790 (aged 40–41) Delhi, India   
17[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg/120px-Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Ali_Gauhar_of_India.jpg>) | **Shah Alam II شاه عالم دوم** | [Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Alam_II> "Shah Alam II") جلال الدین علی گوهرPuppet monarch under the [Maratha Confederacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Confederacy> "Maratha Confederacy") | 25 June 1728 Delhi, India  | 16 October 1788 – 19 November 1806 (18 years, 339 days)  | 19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India   
19[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Akbar_Shah_II_of_India.jpg/120px-Akbar_Shah_II_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Akbar_Shah_II_of_India.jpg>) | **Akbar Shah II اکبر شاه دوم** | [Muin al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar_II> "Akbar II") میرزا اکبرPuppet King under the [East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/East_India_Company> "East India Company") | 22 April 1760 [Mukundpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mukundpur> "Mukundpur"), India  | 19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837 (30 years, 321 days)  | 28 September 1837 (aged 77) Delhi, India   
20[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg/120px-Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg>) | **Bahadur Shah II Zafar بهادر شاه ظفر** | [Abu Zafar Siraj al-Din Muhammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_II> "Bahadur Shah II") ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد | 24 October 1775 Delhi, India  | 28 September 1837 – 21 September 1857 (19 years, 360 days)  | 7 November 1862 (aged 87) [Rangoon, Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rangoon,_Myanmar> "Rangoon, Myanmar")  
## See also
  * [History of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_India> "History of India")
  * [Flags of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Flags_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Flags of the Mughal Empire")
  * [Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire")
  * [List of Mongol states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_Mongol_states> "List of Mongol states")
  * [Mughal-Mongol genealogy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal-Mongol_genealogy> "Mughal-Mongol genealogy")
  * [Islam in South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia> "Islam in South Asia")
  * [NCERT textbook controversies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/NCERT_textbook_controversies> "NCERT textbook controversies")


## References
### Footnotes
  1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-2> "Jump up")** [Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches> "Islamic schools and branches"): [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sunni_Islam> "Sunni Islam")
    School of [jurisprudence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fiqh> "Fiqh"): [Hanafi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hanafi> "Hanafi")


### Citations
  1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinopoli1994294_1-0> "Jump up")** [Sinopoli 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFSinopoli1994>), p. 294.
  2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-TurchinAdams2006_3-0> "Jump up")** Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (2006). ["East–West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369>). _Journal of World-Systems Research_. **12** (2): 219–229. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.5195/JWSR.2006.369](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369>). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\)> "ISSN \(identifier\)") [1076-156X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X>).
  3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Taagepera_4-0> "Jump up")** [Rein Taagepera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rein_Taagepera> "Rein Taagepera") (September 1997). ["Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807>). _[International Studies Quarterly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly> "International Studies Quarterly")_. **41** (3): 475–504. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1111/0020-8833.00053](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053>). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\)> "ISSN \(identifier\)") [0020-8833](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8833>). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [2600793](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/2600793>). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https:/escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807>) from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
  4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-OxfordArea_5-0> "Jump up")** Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (2020). [_The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92>). Oxford University Press. pp. 92–94. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-977311-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977311-4> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977311-4").
  5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-6> "Jump up")** Dyson, Tim (2018). _A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day_. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–71. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-256430-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256430-6> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256430-6"). "We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure even could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew over the seventeenth century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707."
  6. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-borocz_7-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-borocz_7-1>) [József Böröcz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_B%C3%B6r%C3%B6cz> "József Böröcz") (2009). [_The European Union and Global Social Change_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=d0SPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21>). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Routledge> "Routledge"). p. 21. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-135-25580-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25580-0> "Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25580-0"). Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards199573–74_8-0> "Jump up")** [Richards 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRichards1995>), pp. 73–74.
  8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-12_9-0> "Jump up")** [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 159–. Quote: "The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some 750,000 square miles [1,900,000 km2], ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau, and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east."
  9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-10> "Jump up")** Richards, John F. (28 March 2012). [_The Mughal Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=4evztAEACAAJ>). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-511-58406-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-58406-0> "Special:BookSources/978-0-511-58406-0").
  10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Gilbert2017_11-0> "Jump up")** Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), [_South Asia in World History_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75>), Oxford University Press, p. 62, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-066137-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-066137-3> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-066137-3"), retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid, which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions, the matchlock gun and cast cannons, as well as instructors to train his men to use them."
  11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010_12-0> "Jump up")** [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 159–. Quote: "Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime is 1600 when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined; both of these were the accomplishment of Babur's grandson Akbar."
  12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-1_13-0> "Jump up")** [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 159–. Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."
  13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-14> "Jump up")** [Richards 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRichards1995>), p. xv. Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."
  14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-2_15-0> "Jump up")** [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 159–. Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century when warfare destroyed it."
  15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Robb2011_16-0> "Jump up")** [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRobb2011>), pp. 108–. Quote: "The Mughal state was geared for war and succeeded while it won its battles. It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds, from its fortified capitals in Agra, Delhi or Lahore, which defined its heartlands, to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan. The emperor's will be frequently enforced in battle. Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information. But the empire's administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war. Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order. Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders (faujdars) controlled the cavalry and infantry, or the administration, in each region. The peasantry in turn were often armed, able to provide supporters for regional powers, and liable to rebellion on their account: continual pacification was required of the rulers."
  16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Gilbert2017-2_17-0> "Jump up")** Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), [_South Asia in World History_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75>), Oxford University Press, pp. 75–, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-066137-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-066137-3> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-066137-3"), [archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https:/books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75>) from the original on 22 September 2023, retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "With Safavid and Ottoman aid, the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior-driven, expansionist, and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states, now often called "gunpowder empires" due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control."
  17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115_18-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), p. 115.
  18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb201199–100_19-0> "Jump up")** [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRobb2011>), pp. 99–100.
  19. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–_20-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–_20-1>) [_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006152–_20-2>) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 152–.
  20. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-3_21-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-3_21-1>) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 164–. Quote: "The resource base of Akbar's new order was land revenue"
  21. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-1_22-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-1_22-1>) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 158–. Quote: "The Mughal empire was based in the interior of a large land mass and derived the vast majority of its revenues from agriculture."
  22. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-4_23-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Stein2010-4_23-1>) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), pp. 164–. Quote: "... well over half of the output from the fields in his realm, after the costs of production had been met, is estimated to have been taken from the peasant producers by way of official taxes and unofficial exactions. Moreover, payments were exacted in money, and this required a well-regulated silver currency."
  23. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-3_24-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-3_24-1>) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 152–. Quote: "His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into market networks, where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier."
  24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-4_25-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 152–. Quote: "Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar's power, and maintained by his successors, contributed to India's economic expansion."
  25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-5_26-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 186–. Quote: "As the European presence in India grew, their demands for Indian goods and trading rights increased, thus bringing even greater wealth to the already flush Indian courts."
  26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-6_27-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 186–. Quote: "The elite spent more and more money on luxury goods and sumptuous lifestyles, and the rulers built entire new capital cities at times."
  27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-AsherTalbot2006-7_28-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), pp. 186–. Quote: "All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts, including textiles, paintings, architecture, jewellery, and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes."
  28. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Centre_29-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Centre_29-1>) Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. ["Taj Mahal"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/>). _UNESCO World Heritage Centre_. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20180201133603/https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/252>) from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Vanina_30-0> "Jump up")** [Vanina, Eugenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eugenia_Vanina> "Eugenia Vanina") (2012). [_Medieval Indian Mindscapes: Space, Time, Society, Man_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=yriGbWNAF5EC&pg=PA47>). Primus Books. p. 47. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-93-80607-19-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-80607-19-1> "Special:BookSources/978-93-80607-19-1"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230922033421/https:/books.google.com/books?id=yriGbWNAF5EC&pg=PA47>) from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-31> "Jump up")** Hardy, P. (1979). "Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the Literature". In Levtzion, Nehemia (ed.). [_Conversion to Islam_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=37nXAAAAMAAJ&q=bilad+-+i+Hind+\(+the+country+of+Hind+\)+,+wilayat+-+i+Hindustan+\(+the+dominion+of+Hindustan+\)+,+sultanat+-+i>). Holmes & Meier. p. 69. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-8419-0343-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8419-0343-2> "Special:BookSources/978-0-8419-0343-2"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230403231614/https:/books.google.com/books?id=37nXAAAAMAAJ&q=bilad+-+i+Hind+\(+the+country+of+Hind+\)+,+wilayat+-+i+Hindustan+\(+the+dominion+of+Hindustan+\)+,+sultanat+-+i>) from the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-32> "Jump up")** ["Name of the Monument/ site: Tomb of Aurangzeb"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20150923175254/http:/www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf>) (PDF). _asiaurangabad.in_. Archived from [the original](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf>) (PDF) on 23 September 2015.
  32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-33> "Jump up")** Parvez, Aslam; Fārūqī, At̤har (2017). _The life & poetry of Bahadur Shah Zafar_. New Delhi, India: Hay House India. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-93-85827-47-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-85827-47-1> "Special:BookSources/978-93-85827-47-1"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\)> "OCLC \(identifier\)") [993093699](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/oclc/993093699>).
  33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-34> "Jump up")** ["Indian History Collective"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.today/20231230135647/https:/indianhistorycollective.com/what-was-hindustan-hindustani-subcontinentofindia-politicalmap-geographynow-geographygames-mughalempire-mughalarchitecture-architecture-hindoostanmap/>). 30 December 2023. Archived from [the original](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/indianhistorycollective.com/what-was-hindustan-hindustani-subcontinentofindia-politicalmap-geographynow-geographygames-mughalempire-mughalarchitecture-architecture-hindoostanmap/>) on 30 December 2023.
  34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-35> "Jump up")** Mosca, Matthew (2013). [_From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=Zvmix_k1XDcC&pg=PA94>). Stanford University Press. pp. 78–94. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-8047-8538-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8538-9> "Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8538-9"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20231107203141/https:/books.google.com/books?id=Zvmix_k1XDcC&pg=PA94>) from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Fontana_36-0> "Jump up")** Fontana, Michela (2011). [_Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=MVZU1sAQ8H4C&pg=PA32>). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 32. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-4422-0588-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0588-8> "Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0588-8"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230922033421/https:/books.google.com/books?id=MVZU1sAQ8H4C&pg=PA32>) from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Thackston2_37-0> "Jump up")** [Zahir ud-Din Mohammad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur") (2002). [Thackston, Wheeler M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wheeler_Thackston> "Wheeler Thackston") (ed.). [_The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baburnama> "Baburnama"). New York: Modern Library. p. [xlvi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/babarinizam00babu/page/>). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-375-76137-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-76137-9> "Special:BookSources/978-0-375-76137-9"). "In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani, after Temür's title Gurkân, the Persianized form of the Mongolian _kürägän_ , 'son-in-law,' a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess."
  37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-persianatemogul_38-0> "Jump up")** John Walbridge. _God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason_. p. 165. "Persianate Mogul Empire."
  38. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Hodgson_39-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Hodgson_39-1>) [_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Hodgson_39-2>) [_**d**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Hodgson_39-3>) [Hodgson, Marshall G. S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Marshall_Hodgson> "Marshall Hodgson") (2009). [_The Venture of Islam_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=COOGFSH_jUkC&pg=PA62>). Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. p. 62. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-226-34688-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-34688-5> "Special:BookSources/978-0-226-34688-5").
  39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Canfield_40-0> "Jump up")** Canfield, Robert L. (2002). [_Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PA20>). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-521-52291-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5> "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5").
  40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-RA_41-0> "Jump up")** Huskin, Frans Husken; Dick van der Meij (2004). [_Reading Asia: New Research in Asian Studies_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=IVhUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104>). Routledge. p. 104. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-136-84377-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-84377-8> "Special:BookSources/978-1-136-84377-8").
  41. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-1>) [_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-2>) [_**d**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-3>) [_**e**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-4>) [_**f**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-5>) [_**g**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-6>) [_**h**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-7>) [_**i**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-8>) [_**j**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-9>) [_**k**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-10>) [_**l**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Berndl_42-11>) Berndl, Klaus (2005). _National Geographic Visual History of the World_. National Geographic Society. pp. 318–320. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-7922-3695-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-3695-5> "Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-3695-5").
  42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-43> "Jump up")** Gérard Chaliand, _A Global History of War: From Assyria to the Twenty-First Century_ , [University of California Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/University_of_California_Press> "University of California Press"), California 2014, p. 151
  43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-44> "Jump up")** Bayley, Christopher (1990). _The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant_. Time-Life Books. p. 151. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [0-7054-0982-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7054-0982-1> "Special:BookSources/0-7054-0982-1").
  44. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards19958_45-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards19958_45-1>) [_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards19958_45-2>) [Richards 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRichards1995>), p. 8.
  45. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006116_46-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006116_46-1>) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), p. 116.
  46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006117_47-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), p. 117.
  47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-48> "Jump up")** Bayley, Christopher (1990). _The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant_. Time-Life Books. p. 154. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [0-7054-0982-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7054-0982-1> "Special:BookSources/0-7054-0982-1").
  48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197459,_65_49-0> "Jump up")** [Majumdar 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFMajumdar1974>), pp. 59, 65.
  49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards199512_50-0> "Jump up")** [Richards 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFRichards1995>), p. 12.
  50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-51> "Jump up")** [Ballhatchet, Kenneth A.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kenneth_A._Ballhatchet> "Kenneth A. Ballhatchet") ["Akbar"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar>). _Encyclopædia Britannica_. [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230525120830/https:/www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar>) from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
  51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-52> "Jump up")** [Smith, Vincent Arthur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Vincent_Arthur_Smith> "Vincent Arthur Smith") (1917). [_Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/cu31924024056503/page/n34/mode/1up>). Oxford at The Clarendon Press. pp. 13–14.
  52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-53> "Jump up")** [Begum, Gulbadan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gulbadan_Begum> "Gulbadan Begum") (1902). [_The History of Humāyūn (Humāyūn-Nāma)_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/historyofhumayun00gulbrich>). Translated by [Beveridge, Annette S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Annette_Beveridge> "Annette Beveridge") Royal Asiatic Society. pp. [237](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/historyofhumayun00gulbrich/page/237>)–239.
  53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010162_54-0> "Jump up")** [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFStein2010>), p. 162.
  54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006128_55-0> "Jump up")** [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006>), p. 128.
  55. ^ [Jump up to: _**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Mohammada_56-0>) [_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Mohammada_56-1>) Mohammada, Malika (2007). [_The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA300>). Aakar Books. p. 300. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-81-89833-18-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89833-18-3> "Special:BookSources/978-81-89833-18-3").
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  57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-58> "Jump up")** Muhammad-Hadi (1999). _Preface to The Jahangirnama_. Translated by [Thackston, Wheeler M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wheeler_Thackston> "Wheeler Thackston") Oxford University Press. p. 4. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-512718-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512718-8> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512718-8").
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  80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-81> "Jump up")** [Pagadi, Setu Madhavarao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Setumadhavarao_Pagadi> "Setumadhavarao Pagadi") (1970). ["Maratha-Nizam Relations : Nizam-Ul-Mulk's Letters"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/maratha-nizam-relations-nizam-ul-mulk-s-letters>). _Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute_. **51** (1/4): 94. "The Mughal court was hostile to Nizam-ul-Mulk..... Nizam did not interfere with the Maratha activities in Malwa and Gujarat.....Nizam-ul-Mulk considered the Maratha army..."
  81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-82> "Jump up")** Salma Ahmed Farooqui (2011). [_A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-eighteenth Century_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&q=Mughal+empire+got+reduced+to+a+small+kingdom>). Pearson Education India. p. 309. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-8131732021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8131732021> "Special:BookSources/978-8131732021"). "Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other part of the empire too, and the governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh soon established independent kingdoms as well."
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  100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-101> "Jump up")** [Eaton, Richard M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Richard_M._Eaton> "Richard M. Eaton") (2019). _India in the Persianate Age : 1000–1765_. University of California Press. p. 272. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-520-97423-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-97423-4> "Special:BookSources/978-0-520-97423-4"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\)> "OCLC \(identifier\)") [1243310832](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/oclc/1243310832>).
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  103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<#cite_ref-Williamson_104-0> "Jump up")** [Jeffrey G. Williamson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jeffrey_G._Williamson> "Jeffrey G. Williamson") & David Clingingsmith, [India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf>) [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20170329075904/http:/www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf>) 29 March 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wayback_Machine> "Wayback Machine"), Global Economic History Network, [London School of Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/London_School_of_Economics> "London School of Economics")
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  * J.J.L. Gommans (2002). [_Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500–1700_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20110102093702/http:/www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102714757>). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [9781134552757](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134552757> "Special:BookSources/9781134552757"). Archived from [the original](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=UZWBAgAAQBAJ>) on 2 January 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  * [Habib, Irfan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Irfan_Habib> "Irfan Habib"); [Kumar, Dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dharma_Kumar> "Dharma Kumar"); [Raychaudhuri, Tapan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tapan_Raychaudhuri> "Tapan Raychaudhuri") (1987). [_The Cambridge Economic History of India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf>) (PDF). Vol. 1. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cambridge_University_Press> "Cambridge University Press"). Retrieved 11 August 2017.
  * Jorge Flores (2015). [_The Mughal Padshah: A Jesuit Treatise on Emperor Jahangir's Court and Household_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=o3XsCgAAQBAJ>). Volume 6 of Rulers & Elites. Brill. p. 74. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-9004307537](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004307537> "Special:BookSources/978-9004307537"). Retrieved 13 July 2024.
  * Kaushik Roy; Peter Lorge (2014). [_Chinese and Indian Warfare - From the Classical Age to 1870_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ>) (ebook). Taylor & Francis. p. 196. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-317-58710-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-58710-1> "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-58710-1"). Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  * [Majumdar, R.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/R.C._Majumdar> "R.C. Majumdar") (1974). [_The Mughul Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974>). Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  * Moosvi, Shireen (2015) [First published 1987]. [_The economy of the Mughal Empire, c. 1595: a statistical study_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=gAFuAAAAMAAJ>) (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-19-908549-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908549-1> "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908549-1"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230922035948/https:/books.google.com/books?id=gAFuAAAAMAAJ>) from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  * [Richards, John F.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/John_F._Richards> "John F. Richards") (1995). [_The Mughal Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA202>). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-521-56603-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56603-2> "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56603-2").
  * Robb, Peter (2011), [_A History of India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=GJNKEAAAQBAJ>), Macmillan International Higher Education, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-230-34424-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-34424-2> "Special:BookSources/978-0-230-34424-2")
  * Seyller, John (2011). "A Mughal Manuscript of the "Diwan" of Nawa'i". _Artibus Asiae_. **71** (2): 325–334.
  * Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). ["Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/42928323>). _Asian Perspectives_. **33** (2): 293–308. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\)> "ISSN \(identifier\)") [0066-8435](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-8435>). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [42928323](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/42928323>). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20220501200000/https:/www.jstor.org/stable/42928323>) from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
  * [Stein, Burton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Burton_Stein> "Burton Stein") (2010), [_A History of India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC>), John Wiley & Sons, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-4443-2351-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2351-1> "Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2351-1"), retrieved 15 July 2019
  * Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). [_Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/islamicgunpowder0000stre>). Philadelphia: Westview Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-8133-1359-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1359-7> "Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1359-7").
  * Streusand, Douglas E. (2018). [_Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=j6HsDwAAQBAJ>). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [9780429979217](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429979217> "Special:BookSources/9780429979217"). Retrieved 24 April 2024.
  * Truschke, Audrey (2017). [_Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ>). [Stanford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stanford_University_Press> "Stanford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-5036-0259-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0259-5> "Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0259-5").


## Further reading
  * Alam, Muzaffar. _Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48_ (1988)
  * Ali, M. Athar (1975), "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case", _Modern Asian Studies_ , **9** (3): 385–396, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1017/s0026749x00005825](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0026749x00005825>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [311728](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/311728>), [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [143861682](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143861682>), on the causes of its collapse
  * Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", _History Today_ (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
  * Blake, Stephen P. (November 1979), "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals", _Journal of Asian Studies_ , **39** (1): 77–94, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.2307/2053505](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.2307%2F2053505>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [2053505](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/2053505>), [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [154527305](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154527305>)
  * Dale, Stephen F. _The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals_ (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
  * Dalrymple, William (2007). [_The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=zlEDvkhEmL8C>). Random House Digital, Inc. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-307-26739-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26739-9> "Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26739-9").
  * Faruqui, Munis D. (2005), "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India", _Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient_ , **48** (4): 487–523, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1163/156852005774918813](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1163%2F156852005774918813>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [25165118](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/25165118>), on Akbar and his brother
  * Gordon, S. _[The New Cambridge History of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_New_Cambridge_History_of_India> "The New Cambridge History of India"), II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818_ (Cambridge, 1993).
  * Habib, Irfan. _Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps_ (1982).
  * Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004) [First published 1994 as _Histoire de l'Inde Moderne_]. [_A History of Modern India, 1480–1950_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C>) (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-1-84331-004-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-004-4> "Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-004-4"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230922040049/https:/books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C>) from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  * [Metcalf, B.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barbara_Metcalf> "Barbara Metcalf"); [Metcalf, T.R.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Thomas_R._Metcalf> "Thomas R. Metcalf") (2006), [_A Concise History of Modern India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C>) (2nd ed.), [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cambridge_University_Press> "Cambridge University Press"), [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-521-68225-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68225-1> "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68225-1"), [archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20230702122602/https:/books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C>) from the original on 2 July 2023, retrieved 19 October 2015
  * Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). [_The Mughul Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=hmagAAAAMAAJ>). B.V. Bhavan.
  * Richards, J.F. (April 1981), "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy", _Comparative Studies in Society and History_ , **23** (2): 285–308, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1017/s0010417500013311](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0010417500013311>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [178737](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/178737>), [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [154809724](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154809724>)
  * Robb, P. (2001), _A History of India_ , London: Palgrave, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-333-69129-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69129-8> "Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69129-8")`{{citation[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Citation> "Template:Citation")}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location> "Category:CS1 maint: publisher location"))
  * Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. _The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803_ (1952) online.
  * [Stein, B.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Burton_Stein> "Burton Stein") (1998), [_A History of India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC>) (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-631-20546-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20546-3> "Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20546-3")


### Culture
  * Berinstain, V. _Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne_ (London, 1998).
  * Busch, Allison. _Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India_ (2011) [excerpt and text search](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.amazon.com/Poetry-Kings-Classical-Literature-Research/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=1-2>) [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20160529164539/http:/www.amazon.com/Poetry-Kings-Classical-Literature-Research/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=1-2>) 29 May 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wayback_Machine> "Wayback Machine")
  * Parodi, Laura E. (2021). "Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century". _Muqarnas Online_. **38** (1): 113–153. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1163/22118993-00381P05](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1163%2F22118993-00381P05>). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [245040517](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245040517>).
  * Diana Preston; Michael Preston (2007). [_Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/tajmahalpassiong00pres>). Walker & Company. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-8027-1673-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1673-6> "Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1673-6").
  * [Schimmel, Annemarie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel> "Annemarie Schimmel"). _The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture_ (Reaktion 2006)
  * Welch, S.C.; et al. (1987). [_The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/114935/rec/401>). New York: The [Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art> "Metropolitan Museum of Art"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0-87099-499-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-499-9> "Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-499-9"). [Archived](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/web.archive.org/web/20180927100257/http:/libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/114935/rec/401>) from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2013.


### Society and economy
  * Chaudhuri, K.N. (1978), "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India", _Modern Asian Studies_ , **12** (1): 77–96, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1017/s0026749x00008155](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0026749x00008155>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [311823](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/311823>), [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\)> "S2CID \(identifier\)") [146558617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146558617>)
  * Habib, Irfan. _Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps_ (1982).
  * Habib, Irfan. _Agrarian System of Mughal India_ (1963, revised edition 1999).
  * J. C. Sharman (2019). _Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order_. Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [978-0691182797](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691182797> "Special:BookSources/978-0691182797").
  * Heesterman, J.C. (2004), "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction", _Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient_ , **47** (3): 292–297, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.1163/1568520041974729](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.1163%2F1568520041974729>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [25165051](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/25165051>)
  * Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1976), "The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire", _Social Scientist_ , **5** (1): 28–49, [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doi_\(identifier\)> "Doi \(identifier\)"):[10.2307/3516601](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/doi.org/10.2307%2F3516601>), [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\)> "JSTOR \(identifier\)") [3516601](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.jstor.org/stable/3516601>)
  * Masanori Sato (佐藤正哲); Nariaki Nakazato (中里成章); Tsukasa Mizushima (水島司) (1998). [_ムガル帝国から英領インドへ_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.kinokuniya.co.jp/f/dsg-01-9784122051263>) [_From the Mughal Empire to British India_]. 世界の歴史14 (in Japanese). 中央公論社.
    * second publishment _ムガル帝国から英領インドへ_ [_From the Mughal Empire to British India_]. Chuokoron-Shinsha World History 14. 2009.
  * Rothermund, Dietmar. _An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991_ (1993)
  * [Oleg Igorevich Krassov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oleg_Krassov> "Oleg Krassov") (2022). [_Land Law in Asian Countries_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/books.google.com/books?id=lSaJEAAAQBAJ>) (ebook). Norma. p. 75. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\)> "ISBN \(identifier\)") [9785001562566](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:BookSources/9785001562566> "Special:BookSources/9785001562566"). Retrieved 18 April 2024.


### Primary sources
  * [Bernier, Francois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bernier> "François Bernier") (1891). [_Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/travelsinmogulem00bernuoft#page/ii/mode/2up>). Archibald Constable, London.
  * Hiro, Dilip, ed, _Journal of Emperor Babur_ (Penguin Classics 2007) 
    * _The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor_ ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
  * Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. _History of India_ (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson [online edition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala>)
  * Jouher (1832). [_The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/tezkerehalvakiat00jawhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up>). Translated by Major Charles Stewart. John Murray, London.


### Older histories
  * Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John. _[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/The_History_of_India,_as_Told_by_Its_Own_Historians._The_Muhammadan_Period> "The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period")_ ; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at [Packard Humanities Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Packard_Humanities_Institute> "Packard Humanities Institute") – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
  * Adams, W.H. Davenport (1893). [_Warriors of the Crescent_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/warriorsofcresce00adamuoft#page/n9/mode/2up>). London: Hutchinson.`{{cite book[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Cite_book> "Template:Cite book")}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location> "Category:CS1 maint: publisher location"))
  * [Holden, Edward Singleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Edward_Singleton_Holden> "Edward Singleton Holden") (1895). [_The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398–A.D. 1707_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/mogulemperorsofh00hold#page/n9/mode/2up>). New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
  * Malleson, G.B. (1896). [_Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/akbarriseofmugha00mallrich#page/n5/mode/2up>). Oxford : Clarendon Press.`{{cite book[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Cite_book> "Template:Cite book")}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location> "Category:CS1 maint: publisher location"))
  * [Manucci, Niccolao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Niccolao_Manucci> "Niccolao Manucci"); tr. from French by [François Catrou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Catrou> "François Catrou") (1826). [_History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/historyofmoguldy00manurich#page/n5/mode/2up>). London : J.M. Richardson.
  * [Lane-Poole, Stanley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stanley_Lane-Poole> "Stanley Lane-Poole") (1906). [_History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4)_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/historyofindia04jackuoft#page/n9/mode/2up>). London, Grolier society.
  * [Manucci, Niccolao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Niccolao_Manucci> "Niccolao Manucci"); tr. by [William Irvine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/William_Irvine_\(historian\)> "William Irvine \(historian\)") (1907). [_Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm01manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up>). London, J. Murray.
  * [Manucci, Niccolao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Niccolao_Manucci> "Niccolao Manucci"); tr. by William Irvine (1907). [_Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm02manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up>). London, J. Murray.
  * [Manucci, Niccolao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Niccolao_Manucci> "Niccolao Manucci"); tr. by William Irvine (1907). [_Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm03manuuoft#page/n9/mode/2up>). London, J. Murray.
  * Owen, Sidney J (1912). [_The Fall of the Mogul Empire_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/archive.org/stream/fallofmogulempir00owenuoft#page/n5/mode/2up>). London, J. Murray.


## External links
**Mughal Empire** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects> "Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects")
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg>)[Definitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mughal_Empire> "wikt:Special:Search/Mughal Empire") from Wiktionary
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg>)[Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mughal_Empire> "c:Category:Mughal Empire") from Commons
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg>)[Quotations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire> "q:Mughal Empire") from Wikiquote
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg>)[Texts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mughal_Empire> "s:Special:Search/Mughal Empire") from Wikisource
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg>)[Textbooks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mughal_Empire> "b:Special:Search/Mughal Empire") from Wikibooks
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg>)[Resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mughal_Empire> "v:Special:Search/Mughal Empire") from Wikiversity
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg>)[Travel information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire> "voy:Mughal Empire") from Wikivoyage
  * [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/File:Wikidata-logo.svg>)[Data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33296> "d:Q33296") from Wikidata


  * [Mughal India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<http:/www.mughalindia.co.uk/index.html>) an interactive experience from the [British Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Museum> "British Museum")
  * [The Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y27h>), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (_In Our Time_ , 26 February 2004)
  * [Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05wq1fh>), From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.


show
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Mughal_Empire> "Template:Mughal Empire")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Mughal_Empire> "Template talk:Mughal Empire")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mughal_Empire> "Special:EditPage/Template:Mughal Empire")

[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Mughal_Empire_%28triangular%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Mughal_Empire_%28triangular%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Flags_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Flags of the Mughal Empire")Mughal Empire  
---  
[Emperors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_emperors> "Mughal emperors")| 
  * [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babur> "Babur")
  * [Humayun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun> "Humayun")
  * [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar")
  * [Jahangir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir> "Jahangir")
  * [Shahryar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahryar_Mirza> "Shahryar Mirza")
  * [Shah Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan> "Shah Jahan")
  * [Aurangzeb (Alamgir I)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aurangzeb> "Aurangzeb")
  * [Muhammad Azam Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Azam_Shah> "Muhammad Azam Shah")
  * [Bahadur Shah I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_I> "Bahadur Shah I")
  * [Jahandar Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahandar_Shah> "Jahandar Shah")
  * [Farrukhsiyar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Farrukhsiyar> "Farrukhsiyar")
  * [Rafi ud-Darajat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rafi_ud-Darajat> "Rafi ud-Darajat")
  * [Shah Jahan II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_II> "Shah Jahan II")
  * [Muhammad Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Muhammad_Shah> "Muhammad Shah")
  * [Ahmad Shah Bahadur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Bahadur> "Ahmad Shah Bahadur")
  * [Alamgir II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alamgir_II> "Alamgir II")
  * [Shah Jahan III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_III> "Shah Jahan III")
  * [Shah Alam II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Alam_II> "Shah Alam II")
  * [Shah Jahan IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mahmud_Shah_Bahadur> "Mahmud Shah Bahadur")
  * [Akbar II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar_II> "Akbar II")
  * [Bahadur Shah II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar> "Bahadur Shah Zafar")

  
Administration| 
  * [Dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_dynasty> "Timurid dynasty")
    * [family tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_family_tree> "Timurid family tree")
  * [Economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Economy_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Economy of the Mughal Empire")
  * [Flag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Flag_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Flag of the Mughal Empire")
  * [Foreign relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire")
  * [Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Government_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Government of the Mughal Empire")
  * [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Army_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Army of the Mughal Empire")
    * [Mughal artillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_artillery> "Mughal artillery")

| **[Provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subah> "Subah")**| 
  * [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Subah> "Agra Subah")
  * [Ajmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ajmer_Subah> "Ajmer Subah")
  * [Awadh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Awadh_Subah> "Awadh Subah")
  * [Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal_Subah> "Bengal Subah")
  * [Berar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Berar_Subah> "Berar Subah")
  * [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bihar_Subah> "Bihar Subah")
  * [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gujarat_Subah> "Gujarat Subah")
  * [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Delhi_Subah> "Delhi Subah")
  * [Hyderabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hyderabad_Subah> "Hyderabad Subah")
  * [Lahore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore_Subah> "Lahore Subah")
  * [Malwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Malwa_Subah> "Malwa Subah")
  * [Multan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Subah_of_Multan> "Subah of Multan")
  * [Sira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sira_Subah> "Sira Subah")

  
---|---  
Conflicts| 
  * [Mughal-Rajput wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal-Rajput_wars> "Mughal-Rajput wars")
  * [Mughal conquest of Malwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_conquest_of_Malwa> "Mughal conquest of Malwa")
  * [Gujarat conquest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar%27s_conquest_of_Gujarat> "Akbar's conquest of Gujarat")
  * [Mughal–Safavid war (1622–1623)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Safavid_war_\(1622%E2%80%931623\)> "Mughal–Safavid war \(1622–1623\)")
  * [Mughal–Safavid war (1649–1653)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Safavid_war_\(1649%E2%80%931653\)> "Mughal–Safavid war \(1649–1653\)")
  * [Suppression of Tilpat rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gokula#Battle_of_Tilpat> "Gokula")
  * [Ahom–Mughal conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ahom%E2%80%93Mughal_conflicts> "Ahom–Mughal conflicts")
  * [Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tibet%E2%80%93Ladakh%E2%80%93Mughal_war> "Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war")
  * [Mughal–Maratha wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Maratha_wars> "Mughal–Maratha wars")
  * [Child's war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Child%27s_war> "Child's war")
  * [Carnatic wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carnatic_wars> "Carnatic wars")
  * [Bengal war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bengal_war> "Bengal war")
  * [Indian Rebellion of 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857> "Indian Rebellion of 1857")
  * [Mughal–Portuguese conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts> "Mughal–Portuguese conflicts")

| [Battles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Mughal_Empire> "Category:Battles involving the Mughal Empire")| 
  * [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Agra> "Battle of Agra")
  * [Badli-ki-Serai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Badli-ki-Serai> "Battle of Badli-ki-Serai")
  * [Bhuchar Mori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Bhuchar_Mori> "Battle of Bhuchar Mori")
  * [Buxar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Buxar> "Battle of Buxar")
  * [Chanderi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Chanderi> "Battle of Chanderi")
  * [Chausa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Chausa> "Battle of Chausa")
  * [Ghagra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Ghaghra> "Battle of Ghaghra")
  * [Haldighati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Haldighati> "Battle of Haldighati")
  * [Karnal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Karnal> "Battle of Karnal")
  * [Khajwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Khajwa> "Battle of Khajwa")
  * [Khanwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Khanwa> "Battle of Khanwa")
  * [Najafgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Najafgarh> "Battle of Najafgarh")
  * [Panipat (1526)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat> "First Battle of Panipat")
  * [Panipat (1556)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Battle_of_Panipat> "Second Battle of Panipat")
  * [Panipat (1761)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat> "Third Battle of Panipat")
  * [Plassey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Plassey> "Battle of Plassey")
  * [Raj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Raj_Mahal> "Battle of Raj Mahal")
  * [Samugarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Samugarh> "Battle of Samugarh")
  * [Sirhind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Sirhind_\(1555\)> "Battle of Sirhind \(1555\)")
  * [Thanesar (1567)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Thanesar_\(1567\)> "Battle of Thanesar \(1567\)")
  * [Thanesar (1710)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Thanesar_\(1710\)> "Battle of Thanesar \(1710\)")
  * [Tukaroi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Battle_of_Tukaroi> "Battle of Tukaroi")
  * [Bakla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Conquest_of_Bakla> "Conquest of Bakla")
  * [Bhulua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Conquest_of_Bhulua> "Conquest of Bhulua")

  
---|---  
[Sieges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Sieges_involving_the_Mughal_Empire> "Category:Sieges involving the Mughal Empire")| 
  * [Bijapur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Bijapur> "Siege of Bijapur")
  * [Chittorgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Chittorgarh_\(1567%E2%80%931568\)> "Siege of Chittorgarh \(1567–1568\)")
  * [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Delhi> "Siege of Delhi")
  * [Daman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Daman_\(1638%E2%80%931639\)> "Siege of Daman \(1638–1639\)")
  * [Daulatabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Daulatabad> "Siege of Daulatabad")
  * [Golconda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Golconda> "Siege of Golconda")
  * [Hooghly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Hooghly> "Siege of Hooghly")
  * [Jinji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Jinji> "Siege of Jinji")
  * [Kandahar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar_\(1605%E2%80%931606\)> "Siege of Kandahar \(1605–1606\)")
  * [Mankot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Mankot_\(1557\)> "Siege of Mankot \(1557\)")
  * [Purandhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Purandhar> "Siege of Purandhar")
  * [Ranthambore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Ranthambore_\(1568\)> "Siege of Ranthambore \(1568\)")
  * [Sambhal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Siege_of_Sambhal> "Siege of Sambhal")

  
Adversaries| 
  * [Baro-Bhuyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Baro-Bhuyan#Baro-Bhuiyans_of_Bengal> "Baro-Bhuyan")
    * [Isa Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Isa_Khan> "Isa Khan")
    * [Khwaja Usman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khwaja_Usman> "Khwaja Usman")
    * [Bayazid of Sylhet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bayazid_of_Sylhet> "Bayazid of Sylhet")
    * [Musa Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Musa_Khan_of_Bengal> "Musa Khan of Bengal")
    * [Pratapaditya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pratapaditya> "Pratapaditya")
  * [Ibrahim Lodi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi> "Ibrahim Lodi")
  * [Rana Sanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rana_Sanga> "Rana Sanga")
  * [Sher Shah Suri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri> "Sher Shah Suri")
  * [Hemu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hemu> "Hemu")
  * [Maharana Pratap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maharana_Pratap> "Maharana Pratap")
  * [Malik Ambar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Malik_Ambar> "Malik Ambar")
  * [Gokula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gokula> "Gokula")
  * [Shivaji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shivaji> "Shivaji")
  * [Lachit Borphukan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lachit_Borphukan> "Lachit Borphukan")
  * [Khushal Khattak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khushal_Khattak> "Khushal Khattak")
  * [Josiah Child](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sir_John_Child,_1st_Baronet> "Sir John Child, 1st Baronet")
  * [Guru Gobind Singh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh> "Guru Gobind Singh")
  * [Henry Every](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Henry_Every> "Henry Every")
  * [Bajirao I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bajirao_I> "Bajirao I")
  * [Nader Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nader_Shah> "Nader Shah")
  * [Hector Munro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hector_Munro,_8th_laird_of_Novar> "Hector Munro, 8th laird of Novar")

  
[Architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_architecture> "Mughal architecture")| | Forts and palaces| 
  * [Agra Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Fort> "Agra Fort")
  * [Lahore Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lahore_Fort> "Lahore Fort")
  * [Lalbagh Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Lalbagh_Fort> "Lalbagh Fort")
  * [Red Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Red_Fort> "Red Fort")
  * [Jahangir Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jahangir_Mahal,_Orchha> "Jahangir Mahal, Orchha")
  * [Sheesh Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sheesh_Mahal_\(Lahore_Fort\)> "Sheesh Mahal \(Lahore Fort\)")

  
---|---  
[Mosques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Mughal_mosques> "Category:Mughal mosques")| 
  * [Alamgir Mosque, Aurangabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alamgir_Mosque,_Aurangabad> "Alamgir Mosque, Aurangabad")
  * [Jama Masjid (Delhi)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jama_Masjid,_Delhi> "Jama Masjid, Delhi")
  * [Chawk Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chawk_Mosque,_Dhaka> "Chawk Mosque, Dhaka")
  * [Badshahi Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Badshahi_Mosque> "Badshahi Mosque")
  * [Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shah_Jahan_Mosque,_Thatta> "Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta")
  * [Sunehri Masjid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sunehri_Masjid,_Lahore> "Sunehri Masjid, Lahore")
  * [Wazir Khan Mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wazir_Khan_Mosque> "Wazir Khan Mosque")

  
[Tombs and mausoleums](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Mughal_tombs> "Category:Mughal tombs")| 
  * [Akbar's Tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Akbar_the_Great> "Tomb of Akbar the Great")
  * [Bibi Ka Maqbara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bibi_Ka_Maqbara> "Bibi Ka Maqbara")
  * [Gardens of Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gardens_of_Babur> "Gardens of Babur")
  * [Humayun's Tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Humayun%27s_Tomb> "Humayun's Tomb")
  * [Jahangir's Tomb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangir> "Tomb of Jahangir")
  * [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal")
  * [Tomb of Salim Chishti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Salim_Chishti> "Tomb of Salim Chishti")
  * [Tomb of Aurangzeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb> "Tomb of Aurangzeb")
  * [Tomb of Nur Jahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tomb_of_Nur_Jahan> "Tomb of Nur Jahan")
  * [List of tombs of Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_tombs_of_Mughal_Empire> "List of tombs of Mughal Empire")

  
Others| 
  * [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri")
  * [Shalimar Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shalimar_Gardens,_Lahore> "Shalimar Gardens, Lahore")
  * [Achabal Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Achabal_Gardens> "Achabal Gardens")
  * [Shahi Bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shahi_Bridge,_Jaunpur> "Shahi Bridge, Jaunpur")
  * _[more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Mughal_architecture> "Category:Mughal architecture")_

  
See also| 
  * [Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Islamic_art> "Islamic art")
  * [Cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughlai_cuisine> "Mughlai cuisine")
  * [Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Persian_culture> "Indo-Persian culture")
  * [Fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_clothing> "Mughal clothing")
  * [Gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_garden> "Mughal garden")
  * [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_language_in_South_Asia> "Persian language in South Asia")
  * [Painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_painting> "Mughal painting")
  * [Iranian immigrants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Emigration_of_Iranians_to_India_during_the_16-18th_centuries> "Emigration of Iranians to India during the 16-18th centuries")
  * [Tribe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_tribe> "Mughal tribe")
  * [Weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mughal_weapons> "Mughal weapons")
  * [Foreign relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Mughal_Empire> "Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire")

  
Successor states| 
  * [Sur Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sur_Empire> "Sur Empire") (_interrupted_)
  * [Maratha Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Empire> "Maratha Empire")
  * [Rajput states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rajputana> "Rajputana")
  * [Jats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jat_people> "Jat people")
  * [Sikh Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sikh_Empire> "Sikh Empire")
  * [Nawabs of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nawabs_of_Bengal_and_Murshidabad> "Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad")
  * [Nawabs of Awadh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nawab_of_Awadh> "Nawab of Awadh")
  * [Nizam of Hyderabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hyderabad_State> "Hyderabad State")
  * [Carnatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carnatic_state> "Carnatic state")
  * [Kingdom of Mysore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore> "Kingdom of Mysore")
  * [Rohilkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rohilkhand> "Rohilkhand")

  
show
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Empires> "Template:Empires")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Empires> "Template talk:Empires")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires> "Special:EditPage/Template:Empires")

[Empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire> "Empire")  
---  
[Ancient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_history> "Ancient history")([colonies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity> "Colonies in antiquity"))| 
  * [Akkadian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akkadian_Empire> "Akkadian Empire")
  * [Armenian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_\(disambiguation\)> "Kingdom of Armenia \(disambiguation\)")
    * [Urartu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Urartu> "Urartu")
    * [Orontid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia> "Satrapy of Armenia")
    * [Ancient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_\(antiquity\)> "Kingdom of Armenia \(antiquity\)")
  * [Assyrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Assyria> "Assyria")
    * [Middle Assyrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire> "Middle Assyrian Empire")
    * [Neo-Assyrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire> "Neo-Assyrian Empire")
  * [Babylonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Babylonia> "Babylonia")
    * [Old Babylonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire> "Old Babylonian Empire")
    * [Kassite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kassites> "Kassites")
    * [Neo-Babylonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire> "Neo-Babylonian Empire")
  * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_Empire> "Chinese Empire")
    * [Qin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qin_dynasty> "Qin dynasty")
    * [Han](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Han_dynasty> "Han dynasty")
    * [Jin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jin_dynasty_\(266%E2%80%93420\)> "Jin dynasty \(266–420\)")
  * [Dʿmt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/D%CA%BFmt> "Dʿmt")
  * [Egyptian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Egypt> "Ancient Egypt")
    * [Old Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt> "Old Kingdom of Egypt")
    * [Middle Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt> "Middle Kingdom of Egypt")
    * [New Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt> "New Kingdom of Egypt")
  * [Goguryeo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Goguryeo> "Goguryeo")
  * [Harsha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Harsha> "Harsha")
  * [Hellenistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hellenistic_period> "Hellenistic period")
    * [Macedonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Macedonia_\(ancient_kingdom\)#Empire> "Macedonia \(ancient kingdom\)")
    * [Seleucid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seleucid_Empire> "Seleucid Empire")
    * [Ptolemaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom> "Ptolemaic Kingdom")
    * [Bactrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom> "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom")
    * [Indo-Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom> "Indo-Greek Kingdom")
  * [Hittite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hittites> "Hittites")
  * [Hunnic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_the_Huns> "History of the Huns")
    * [White](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hephthalites> "Hephthalites")
    * [Xiongnu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Xiongnu> "Xiongnu")
  * [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_Empire_\(disambiguation\)> "Persian Empire \(disambiguation\)")
    * [Median](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Median_kingdom> "Median kingdom")
    * [Achaemenid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Achaemenid_Empire> "Achaemenid Empire")
    * [Parthian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Parthian_Empire> "Parthian Empire")
    * [Sasanian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sasanian_Empire> "Sasanian Empire")
  * [Kush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush> "Kingdom of Kush")
  * [Kushan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kushan_Empire> "Kushan Empire")
  * Magadha 
    * [Haryanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Haryanka_dynasty> "Haryanka dynasty")
    * [Shaishunaga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty> "Shaishunaga dynasty")
    * [Nanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nanda_Empire> "Nanda Empire")
    * [Maurya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maurya_Empire> "Maurya Empire")
    * [Shunga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shunga_Empire> "Shunga Empire")
    * [Gupta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gupta_Empire> "Gupta Empire")
  * [Phoenician](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Phoenicia> "Phoenicia")
    * [Carthaginian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ancient_Carthage> "Ancient Carthage")
  * [Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Empire> "Roman Empire")
    * [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Roman_Empire> "Western Roman Empire")
    * [Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Byzantine_Empire> "Byzantine Empire")
  * [Satavahana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Satavahana_dynasty> "Satavahana dynasty")
  * [Neo-Sumerian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur> "Third Dynasty of Ur")
  * [Xianbei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Xianbei> "Xianbei")
    * [Rouran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rouran_Khaganate> "Rouran Khaganate")

  
[Post-classical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Post-classical_history> "Post-classical history")| 
  * [Angevin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Angevin_Empire> "Angevin Empire")
  * [Aragonese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crown_of_Aragon> "Crown of Aragon")
  * [Armenian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_\(disambiguation\)> "Kingdom of Armenia \(disambiguation\)")
    * [Bagratid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bagratid_Armenia> "Bagratid Armenia")
    * [Vaspurakan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan> "Kingdom of Vaspurakan")
    * [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh> "Kingdom of Artsakh")
    * [Cilician](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia> "Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia")
    * [Zakarid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zakarid_Armenia> "Zakarid Armenia")
  * [Ayyubid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty> "Ayyubid dynasty")
  * [Aztec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Aztec_Empire> "Aztec Empire")
  * [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin> "Kingdom of Benin")
  * [Bornu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu> "Kanem–Bornu Empire")
  * [Bruneian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_\(1368%E2%80%931888\)> "Bruneian Sultanate \(1368–1888\)")
  * [Bulgarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_\(disambiguation\)> "Bulgarian Empire \(disambiguation\)")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire> "First Bulgarian Empire")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire> "Second Bulgarian Empire")
  * [Burmese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Burmese_Empire_\(disambiguation\)> "Burmese Empire \(disambiguation\)")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pagan_kingdom> "Pagan kingdom")
  * [Calakmul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Calakmul> "Calakmul")
  * [Caliphate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Caliphate> "Caliphate")
    * [Rashidun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate> "Rashidun Caliphate")
    * [Umayyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate> "Umayyad Caliphate")
    * [Abbasid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate> "Abbasid Caliphate")
    * [Fatimid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate> "Fatimid Caliphate")
  * [Chalukya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chalukya_dynasty> "Chalukya dynasty")
    * [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire> "Western Chalukya Empire")
    * [Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas> "Eastern Chalukyas")
  * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_Empire> "Chinese Empire")
    * [Sui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sui_dynasty> "Sui dynasty")
    * [Tang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tang_dynasty> "Tang dynasty")
    * [Liao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Liao_dynasty> "Liao dynasty")
    * [Song](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Song_dynasty> "Song dynasty")
    * [Jīn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jin_dynasty_\(1115%E2%80%931234\)> "Jin dynasty \(1115–1234\)")
    * [Yuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Yuan_dynasty> "Yuan dynasty")
  * [Chola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chola_Empire> "Chola Empire")
  * [Ethiopian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ethiopian_Empire> "Ethiopian Empire")
    * [Aksum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum> "Kingdom of Aksum")
    * [Zagwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zagwe_dynasty> "Zagwe dynasty")
    * [Solomonic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ethiopian_Empire> "Ethiopian Empire")
  * [Genoese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Republic_of_Genoa> "Republic of Genoa")
  * [Georgian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia> "Kingdom of Georgia")
  * [Huetar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Garabito_Empire> "Garabito Empire")
  * [Inca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Inca_Empire> "Inca Empire")
  * [Kannauj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tripartite_Struggle> "Tripartite Struggle")
    * [Pala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pala_Empire> "Pala Empire")
    * [Gurjara-Pratihara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty> "Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty")
    * [Rashtrakuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire> "Rashtrakuta Empire")
  * [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Persian_Empire_\(disambiguation\)> "Persian Empire \(disambiguation\)")
    * [Tahirid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tahirid_dynasty> "Tahirid dynasty")
    * [Saffarid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Saffarid_dynasty> "Saffarid dynasty")
    * [Samanid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Samanid_Empire> "Samanid Empire")
    * [Buyid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Buyid_dynasty> "Buyid dynasty")
  * [Japanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Japan> "History of Japan")
    * [Yamato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Yamato_period> "Yamato period")
    * [Kamakura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kamakura_shogunate> "Kamakura shogunate")
    * [Muromachi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate> "Ashikaga shogunate")
    * [Edo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate> "Tokugawa shogunate")
  * [Kanem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire> "Kanem–Bornu Empire")
  * [Khmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khmer_Empire> "Khmer Empire")
  * [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Latin_Empire> "Latin Empire")
  * [Lithuanian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Lithuania> "History of Lithuania")
    * [Grand Duchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania> "Grand Duchy of Lithuania")
    * [Commonwealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth> "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth")
  * [Majapahit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Majapahit> "Majapahit")
  * [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mali_Empire> "Mali Empire")
  * [Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongol_Empire> "Mongol Empire")
    * [Yuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Yuan_dynasty> "Yuan dynasty")
    * [Golden Horde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Golden_Horde> "Golden Horde")
    * [Chagatai Khanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chagatai_Khanate> "Chagatai Khanate")
    * [Ilkhanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ilkhanate> "Ilkhanate")
  * [Berber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Berbers> "Berbers")
    * [Almoravid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Almoravid_dynasty> "Almoravid dynasty")
    * [Almohad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Almohad_Caliphate> "Almohad Caliphate")
  * [Norwegian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Norgesveldet> "Norgesveldet")
  * [North Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/North_Sea_Empire> "North Sea Empire")
  * [Oyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oyo_Empire> "Oyo Empire")
  * [Polish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Poland> "History of Poland")
    * [Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland> "Kingdom of Poland")
    * [Commonwealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth> "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth")
  * [Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Roman_Empire> "Roman Empire")
    * [Byzantine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Byzantine_Empire> "Byzantine Empire")
    * [Nicaea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea> "Empire of Nicaea")
    * [Thessalonica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica> "Empire of Thessalonica")
    * [Trebizond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond> "Empire of Trebizond")
    * [Epirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus> "Despotate of Epirus")
    * [Morea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea> "Despotate of the Morea")
  * [Romano-Germanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture> "Romano-Germanic culture")
    * [Carolingian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Carolingian_Empire> "Carolingian Empire")
    * [Holy Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire> "Holy Roman Empire")
  * [Serbian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Serbian_Empire> "Serbian Empire")
  * [Singhasari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Singhasari> "Singhasari")
  * [Songhai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Songhai_Empire> "Songhai Empire")
  * [Srivijaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Srivijaya> "Srivijaya")
  * [Tibetan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tibetan_Empire> "Tibetan Empire")
  * [Tikal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tikal> "Tikal")
  * [Tiwanaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire> "Tiwanaku Empire")
  * [Toltec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Toltec_Empire> "Toltec Empire")
  * [Turco-Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition> "Turco-Persian tradition")
    * [Ghaznavid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghaznavids> "Ghaznavids")
    * [Great Seljuk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Seljuk_Empire> "Seljuk Empire")
    * [Khwarezmian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire> "Khwarazmian Empire")
    * [Timurid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Timurid_Empire> "Timurid Empire")
  * [Turkic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks> "Göktürks")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate> "First Turkic Khaganate")
    * [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate> "Western Turkic Khaganate")
    * [Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate> "Eastern Turkic Khaganate")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate> "Second Turkic Khaganate")
    * [Türgesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh> "Türgesh")
    * [Uighur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate> "Uyghur Khaganate")
    * [Kyrgyz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate> "Kyrgyz Khaganate")
  * [Venetian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Republic_of_Venice> "Republic of Venice")
  * [Vietnamese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t> "Đại Việt")
    * [Dinh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty> "Đinh dynasty")
    * [Early Le](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty> "Early Lê dynasty")
    * [Ly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty> "Lý dynasty")
    * [Tran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty> "Trần dynasty")
    * [Ho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty> "Hồ dynasty")
    * [Later Tran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty> "Later Trần dynasty")
    * [Later Le](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty> "Lê dynasty")
  * [Vijayanagara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire> "Vijayanagara Empire")
  * [Wagadou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ghana_Empire> "Ghana Empire")
  * [Wari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Wari_Empire> "Wari Empire")

  
[Modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Modern_era> "Modern era")| 
  * [Afghan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Durrani_Empire> "Durrani Empire")
  * [Ashanti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ashanti_Empire> "Ashanti Empire")
  * [Austro-Hungarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Austria-Hungary> "Austria-Hungary")
  * [Brazilian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Brazil> "Empire of Brazil")
  * [Burmese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Burmese_Empire_\(disambiguation\)> "Burmese Empire \(disambiguation\)")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire> "First Toungoo Empire")
    * [Third](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Konbaung_dynasty> "Konbaung dynasty")
  * [Central African](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Central_African_Empire> "Central African Empire")
  * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_Empire> "Chinese Empire")
    * [Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ming_dynasty> "Ming dynasty")
    * [Qing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qing_dynasty> "Qing dynasty")
    * [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_China_\(1915%E2%80%931916\)> "Empire of China \(1915–1916\)")
    * [Manchukuo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Manchukuo> "Manchukuo")
    * [Contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_imperialism> "Chinese imperialism")
  * [Ethiopian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ethiopian_Empire> "Ethiopian Empire")
  * [Haitian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Haiti> "History of Haiti")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti> "First Empire of Haiti")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti> "Second Empire of Haiti")
  * [French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_France> "History of France")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_French_Empire> "First French Empire")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_French_Empire> "Second French Empire")
  * [German](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Germany> "History of Germany")
    * [German Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/German_Empire> "German Empire")
    * [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nazi_Germany> "Nazi Germany")
  * [Indian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Raj> "British Raj")
  * [Indo-Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Indo-Persian_culture> "Indo-Persian culture")
    * Mughal
    * [Sikh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sikh_Empire> "Sikh Empire")
  * [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Iranian_peoples> "Iranian peoples")
    * [Safavid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Safavid_Iran> "Safavid Iran")
    * [Afsharid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Afsharid_Iran> "Afsharid Iran")
    * [Zand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Zand_dynasty> "Zand dynasty")
    * [Qajar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Qajar_Iran> "Qajar Iran")
    * [Pahlavi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty> "Pahlavi dynasty")
  * [Japanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Japan> "Empire of Japan")
  * [Kazakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kazakh_Khanate> "Kazakh Khanate")
  * [Korean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Korean_Empire> "Korean Empire")
  * [Maratha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Maratha_Empire> "Maratha Empire")
  * [Mexican](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Mexico> "History of Mexico")
    * [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/First_Mexican_Empire> "First Mexican Empire")
    * [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire> "Second Mexican Empire")
  * [Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Northern_Yuan> "Northern Yuan")
    * [Oirat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Oirat_Confederation> "Oirat Confederation")
    * [Khoshut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khoshut_Khanate> "Khoshut Khanate")
    * [Dzungar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dzungar_Khanate> "Dzungar Khanate")
    * [Kalmyk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate> "Kalmyk Khanate")
    * [Bogd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia> "Bogd Khanate of Mongolia")
  * [Moroccan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Morocco> "History of Morocco")
    * [Saadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Saadi_Sultanate> "Saadi Sultanate")
    * ['Alawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Alawi_Sultanate> "Alawi Sultanate")
  * [Polish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Second_Polish_Republic> "Second Polish Republic")
  * [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Russia> "History of Russia")
    * [Tsarist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia> "Tsardom of Russia")
    * [Imperial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Empire> "Russian Empire")
    * [Contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism> "Russian imperialism")
  * [Sokoto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate> "Sokoto Caliphate")
  * [Somali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Somalia> "History of Somalia")
    * [Isaaq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate> "Isaaq Sultanate")
    * [Warsengeli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Warsangali_Sultanate> "Warsangali Sultanate")
    * [Ajuran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate> "Ajuran Sultanate")
    * [Geledi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi> "Sultanate of the Geledi")
  * [Swedish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Swedish_Empire> "Swedish Empire")
  * [Tongan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire> "Tuʻi Tonga Empire")
  * [Vietnamese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t> "Đại Việt")
    * [Mạc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty> "Mạc dynasty")
    * [Revival Lê](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty> "Revival Lê dynasty")
    * [Tay Sơn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty> "Tây Sơn dynasty")
    * [Dainam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty> "Nguyễn dynasty")
    * [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam> "Empire of Vietnam")

| [Colonial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonial_empire> "Colonial empire")| 
  * [American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/U.S._imperialism> "U.S. imperialism")
  * [Austrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Austrian_Empire> "Austrian Empire")
    * [attempts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Austrian_colonial_policy> "Austrian colonial policy")
  * [Belgian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire> "Belgian colonial empire")
  * [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/British_Empire> "British Empire")
    * [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/English_overseas_possessions> "English overseas possessions")
    * [Scottish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Scottish colonization of the Americas")
  * [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chinese_Empire> "Chinese Empire")
  * [Danish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies> "Danish overseas colonies")
  * [Dutch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire> "Dutch colonial empire")
  * [French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/French_colonial_empire> "French colonial empire")
  * [German](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/German_colonial_empire> "German colonial empire")
    * [attempts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/German_colonial_projects_before_1871> "German colonial projects before 1871")
  * [Italian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Italian_Empire> "Italian Empire")
    * [Venetian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r> "Stato da Màr")
    * [Genoese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Genoese_colonies> "Genoese colonies")
    * [Maltese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Hospitaller colonization of the Americas")
    * [attempts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Italy_and_the_colonization_of_the_Americas> "Italy and the colonization of the Americas")
  * [Japanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire> "Japanese colonial empire")
  * [Mongol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Mongol_Empire> "Mongol Empire")
  * [Norwegian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_possessions_of_Norway> "List of possessions of Norway")
  * [Omani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Omani_Empire> "Omani Empire")
  * [Ottoman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ottoman_Empire> "Ottoman Empire")
  * [Polish–Lithuanian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth> "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth")
    * [Couronian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Curonian_colonisation> "Curonian colonisation")
    * [attempts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland> "Colonization attempts by Poland")
  * [Portuguese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Portuguese_Empire> "Portuguese Empire")
  * [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Russian_Empire> "Russian Empire")
  * [Spanish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Spanish_Empire> "Spanish Empire")
    * [Catalan-Aragonese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Crown_of_Aragon> "Crown of Aragon")
    * [Basque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_Basque_whaling> "History of Basque whaling")
  * [Swedish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies> "Swedish overseas colonies")

  
---|---  
Lists| 
  * [Empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_empires> "List of empires")
    * [largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_largest_empires> "List of largest empires")
  * [Ancient great powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers> "List of ancient great powers")
  * [Medieval great powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers> "List of medieval great powers")
  * [Modern great powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers> "List of modern great powers")
  * [European colonialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/History_of_colonialism> "History of colonialism")
  * [African empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/African_empires> "African empires")

  
Miscellaneous| 
  * [Academic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Academic_imperialism> "Academic imperialism")
  * [Anti-imperialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Anti-imperialism> "Anti-imperialism")
  * [Cultural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Cultural_imperialism> "Cultural imperialism")
  * [Ecological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Ecological_imperialism> "Ecological imperialism")
  * [Green](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Green_imperialism> "Green imperialism")
  * [Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Media_imperialism> "Media imperialism")
  * [Nuclear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nuclear_imperialism> "Nuclear imperialism")
  * [Liberal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Liberal_Imperialists> "Liberal Imperialists")
  * [Linguistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Linguistic_imperialism> "Linguistic imperialism")
  * [Social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Social_imperialism> "Social imperialism")
  * [Soviet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Soviet_empire> "Soviet empire")
  * [Theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Theories_of_imperialism> "Theories of imperialism")
  * [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/U.S._imperialism> "U.S. imperialism")

  
show
  * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template:Agra_district> "Template:Agra district")
  * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Template_talk:Agra_district> "Template talk:Agra district")
  * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Agra_district> "Special:EditPage/Template:Agra district")

[Agra district](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_district> "Agra district") topics  
---  
History| 
  * [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Akbar> "Akbar")
  * Mughal empire
  * [United Provinces of Agra and Oudh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh> "United Provinces of Agra and Oudh")

  
Cities and towns| 
  * [Achhnera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Achhnera> "Achhnera")
  * [Agra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra> "Agra")
  * [Azizpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Azizpur> "Azizpur")
  * [Bah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bah> "Bah")
  * [Barhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barhan_village> "Barhan village")
  * [Dayalbagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dayalbagh> "Dayalbagh")
  * [Dhanauli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhanauli> "Dhanauli")
  * [Etmadpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Etmadpur> "Etmadpur")
  * [Fatehabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehabad,_Agra> "Fatehabad, Agra")
  * [Fatehpur Sikri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri> "Fatehpur Sikri")
  * [Jagner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jagner> "Jagner")
  * [Kheragarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kheragarh> "Kheragarh")
  * [Kiraoli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kiraoli> "Kiraoli")
  * [Nainana Jat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Nainana_Jat> "Nainana Jat")
  * [Pinahat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Pinahat> "Pinahat")
  * [Shamsabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Shamsabad,_Agra> "Shamsabad, Agra")
  * [Swamibagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Swamibagh> "Swamibagh")

  
Villages| 
  * [Chamrauli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chamrauli,_Barauli_Ahir> "Chamrauli, Barauli Ahir")
  * [Barara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barara,_Agra> "Barara, Agra")
  * [Barauli Ahir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barauli_Ahir> "Barauli Ahir")
  * [Barhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Barhan,_Agra> "Barhan, Agra")
  * [Bateshwar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bateshwar,_Uttar_Pradesh> "Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh")
  * [Beesalpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Beesalpur> "Beesalpur")
  * [Bichpuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Bichpuri> "Bichpuri")
  * [Chhai Pokhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chhai_Pokhar> "Chhai Pokhar")
  * [Daultabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Daultabad> "Daultabad")
  * [Dhimsiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Dhimsiri> "Dhimsiri")
  * [Digrauta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Digrauta> "Digrauta")
  * [Doora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Doora,_Agra> "Doora, Agra")
  * [Garhi Udairaj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Garhi_Udairaj> "Garhi Udairaj")
  * [Holipura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Holipura> "Holipura")
  * [Jarar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Jarar> "Jarar")
  * [Kagarol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kagarol> "Kagarol")
  * [Karahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Karahara> "Karahara")
  * [Kakraita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Kakraita> "Kakraita")
  * [Khanwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Khanwa> "Khanwa")
  * [Meoli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Meoli> "Meoli")
  * [Midhakur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Midhakur> "Midhakur")
  * [Purabirbal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Purabirbal> "Purabirbal")
  * [Rudhmuli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Rudhmuli> "Rudhmuli")
  * [Sahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sahara,_Agra> "Sahara, Agra")
  * [Saivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Saiyan,_Agra> "Saiyan, Agra")
  * [Sakatpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sakatpur> "Sakatpur")
  * [Sarokhipura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Sarokhipura> "Sarokhipura")
  * [Tarrakpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Tarrakpur> "Tarrakpur")

  
Buildings| 
  * [Agra Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Agra_Fort> "Agra Fort")
  * [Buland Darwaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Buland_Darwaza> "Buland Darwaza")
  * [Chauburji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Chauburji_\(Agra\)> "Chauburji \(Agra\)")
  * [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Taj_Mahal> "Taj Mahal")

  
show[Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Help:Authority_control> "Help:Authority control") [![Edit this at Wikidata](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33296#identifiers> "Edit this at Wikidata")  
---  
International| 
  * [VIAF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/viaf.org/viaf/136262178>)
  * [GND](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/d-nb.info/gnd/4074930-7>)
  * [FAST](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.worldcat.org/fast/1240293>)
  * [WorldCat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqQvFKcmYmRWWwwmhFFrq>)

  
National| 
  * [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.loc.gov/authorities/n2007024725>)
  * [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564084>)
  * [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge418171&CON_LNG=ENG>)
  * [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/libris.kb.se/97mpp40t4mwnzv6>)
  * [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007489385105171>)

  
Other| 
  * [İslâm Ansiklopedisi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/baburluler>)
  * [Yale LUX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/lux.collections.yale.edu/view/place/33e22775-4fbb-4d9d-894f-137c6528d303>)

  
Retrieved from "[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mughal_Empire&oldid=1316197126](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/<https:/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mughal_Empire&oldid=1316197126>)"
[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Help:Category> "Help:Category"): 
  * [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Mughal_Empire> "Category:Mughal Empire")
  * [States and territories established in 1526](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_1526> "Category:States and territories established in 1526")
  * [States and territories disestablished in 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1857> "Category:States and territories disestablished in 1857")
  * [Former monarchies in Afghan history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_in_Afghan_history> "Category:Former monarchies in Afghan history")
  * [Early modern history of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_India> "Category:Early modern history of India")
  * [1526 establishments in Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:1526_establishments_in_Asia> "Category:1526 establishments in Asia")
  * [1857 disestablishments in Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:1857_disestablishments_in_Asia> "Category:1857 disestablishments in Asia")
  * [Former monarchies of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_of_India> "Category:Former monarchies of India")
  * [Former monarchies in Pakistani history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_in_Pakistani_history> "Category:Former monarchies in Pakistani history")
  * [History of Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:History_of_Pakistan> "Category:History of Pakistan")
  * [History of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</wiki/Category:History_of_India> "Category:History of India")


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